(a)direct funding of Irish Government Programmes

(b)co-funding of projects with NGOS

(c)funding of related activities in the educational and research areas.

(a)encouraging development education

(b)funding development related organisations (e.g. HEDCO, ICOS).

(a)relative poverty

(b)ability to absorb and use aid effectively

(c)suitability of structures and policy to facilitate the flow of aid to the most needy

(d)historical, cultural, language and administrative links

(e)special circumstances (e.g. the effect of the South African policy of apartheid on Lesotho).

(i)Non-Priority Countries/APSO, Gorta, SADCC, Disaster Relief

(ii)Leostho/Sudan

(iii)Zambia & Tanzania (+ Procurment)

(iv)Preparation and evaluation of projects.

(i)that the level of staffing should be sufficient to ensure efficiency and continuity of administration

(ii)that the level of expertise be sufficient to ensure the quality of Irish aid.

The process of decision making on individual projects involves the Interdepartmental Committee on Development Cooperation (ICDC) which consists of representatives of all interested Departments, its sub-committee, the Project Appraisal and Evaluation Group (PAEG) which generally consists of the central Departments involved e.g. Finance, Public Service, Industry Trade Commerce and Tourism, Agriculture and Foreign Affairs and the project officials (inclusive of the Development Cooperation Officer) in situ. The D/FA draws up a yearly programme in consultation with its Development Cooperation Officer which is subject to the approval of the ICDC. The administration of the programme is monitored by the PAEG in the course of the year and the disbursement of monies is subject to its sanction. The Committee’s main concern in relation to the process of decision making is that at each level professional expertise should be available so that the best possible decisions are taken. Of specific interest to the Committee is the involvement of returned experts in the decision making process. The Committee has established that no formal mechanism exists for this purpose. It is aware that Comhlámh is a member of the ACDC Council and through this mechanism has an input on the policy side. The Committee is also aware that returned volunteers have informal access to the D/FA. However, it has noted the discontent expressed by returned volunteers at the absence of a formal facility through which they could make a concrete contribution to the development aid process. In this context the Committee has offered itself as a forum through which returnees can make their views known. It recommends that at all levels in the decision making process the advice of returned project workers be sought and further recommends that representatives of returned project workers be formally incorporated into decision making and evaluation mechanisms at appropriate levels.

30.In the decision making process the Development Cooperation Officer plays an important role. Initial project planning is shaped in consultation between the D/FA and the Development Cooperation Officer and this process is important particularly in regard to the future shape of the programme. The Development Cooperation Officer is also the principal programme administrator on the ground and is the link which makes cooperation between donor and host government possible. From first hand experience the Committee is in no doubt about the value of full time Development Cooperation Officers and is anxious that their status be sufficiently well defined for optimum effect. The Committee is aware that the Development Cooperation Officer in Lesotho originally had difficulty in functioning efficiently because of doubt about the post’s diplomatic status. The Development Cooperation Officer is now known as Consul General. The Committee feels that, in terms of enhancing their ability both to do business with host governments, and to effectively coordinate with other donor representatives DCO’s in general should have the status of Charge d’Affaires. It is also of the opinion that all priority countries should have a DCO and recommends that steps be taken to appoint a DCO in the Sudan.

31.Relative to the organisation of programmes the Committee is of the opinion that great care should be taken to ensure that no unnecessary expenditure be incurred on administrative costs and that there be maximum cooperation with the NGOS in the field in order to achieve this.

32.The Committee notes the very positive attitude of the NGOS to the decision making process of the D/FA relative to their projects. The NGOS find the D/FA approach flexible, cooperative, speedy and in contrast to the EC, its procedures are considered simple and straightforward. Criticism was expressed by some NGOS about decision making relative to projects in non-traditional areas. The opinion was expressed that D/FA lacked sufficient expertise to adjudge innovative projects and the apparently decisive role of Ambassadors in rejecting proposed projects was also criticised. The Committee feels that the NGOS, in general, viewed the D/FA’s decision making procedures more positively than negatively but is of the opinion that the Department should be willing to innovate and take new directions where appropriate. It recommends that in relation to general issues some consultative mechanism might be established to facilitate a regular exchange of views between the D/FA and the NGOS.

33.(ii) Monitoring of Projects

The Committee is aware of the great importance attached to a strong monitoring/evaluative function in the Bilateral Aid Programme and recognises that the D/FA’s review process insofar as resources allow, is regular, comprehensive and thorough. The Committee is also aware that reviews play a crucial role in the planning process as, once accepted by the Interdepartmental Project Appraisal and Evaluation Group (PAEG) and by the recipient government they form the basis for a project’s next phase. An attempt is also made to consult a wide range of interested parties in situ. The Committee feels that

(i)once project workers have been consulted they should be sufficiently informed of subsequent developments both on a ‘right to know’ basis and to enable them to make further inputs, if appropriate, at later stages of the process.

(ii)there should be sufficient consultative manpower at home to enable the review process to proceed efficiently, particularly in the light of expansion.

(iii)while projects are well monitored it would appear that local personnel, having trained in Ireland and returned to their respective countries, are not. The Committee recognises that this type of monitoring is difficult and costly but, given the investment involved in both time and finance it feels that some rudimentary form of post-training monitoring is desirable.

34. In general the Committee feels that the principal criterion by which projects are evaluated should be their contribution to tackling poverty and its causes at grassroots level. With this aim in mind targets should be set at a project’s planning stage and the fulfilment of these targets should be the principal criterion by which the success or failure of projects is adjudged. The Committee feels that it would be useful, once evaluation has taken place, to publish the results so that the public can be aware of progress achieved in tackling basic needs.

35.(iii) Selection and Training of Volunteers

The D/FA and APSO are the main recruiting agencies for BAP funded volunteers. Some BAP monies might be deemed to be used in the recruitment of volunteers by the NGOS. The Committee recognises that there are differences in qualification and motivation among those who volunteer to work in the development cooperation field. However, it feels that in all cases the selection procedures should be rigorous in order to ensure

-a proper level of commitment to the development process

-respect for different cultures/lifestyles/political processes and economic circumstances

-family agreement

36. Relative to training it is clear that sufficient resources should be available to ensure

-a proper orientation course before departure. This should attempt to impart the social skills necessary to adjust, both on a personal basis and in terms of project work, to local social structures and patterns of behaviour.

-basic language training beginning prior to departure and continuing on arrival until a working knowledge of the local language is acquired.

-basic skills (e.g. car mechanics).

In general the Committee considers that long term planning of training programmes, based on assessment of training needs, is called for.

37.The Committee is aware that some professionals engaged in development work feel, for a variety of reasons but in particular because of the pressures of professional work before departure, that pre-departure training in their case is inadequate. The Committee considers this regrettable and also considers that overlapping between returning and arriving volunteers/experts is essential as is the resolution of personal administrative problems like insurance before departure. In relation to the duration of a volunteer/ expert’s tour of duty the Committee is of the opinion that there should be flexibility of approach on the part of both D/FA and APSO. The primary consideration ought to be the success of a project and the four year limit on voluntary service abroad should not be interpreted so rigidly that projects suffer as a result.

38.The Committee values greatly the contribution which volunteers make to development cooperation and is heartened by the fact that during 1985 conditions relating both to career breaks and social welfare benefits have improved. However, the Committee cannot but express its disappointment at the consistent complaints it has received about the negative attitude in the medical/nursing professions to returned volunteers. In contrast to the improving conditions of others, returnees in the medical field appear to encounter the greatest difficulties in both having their overseas experience recognised and in reestablishing themselves at work. The Committee invites the Irish Medical Association and the Irish Medical Union to address themselves to this problem and hopes that the selflessness which so many in the medical field have displayed in disease and fever stricken areas abroad will very quickly get the recognition it deserves.

39.(iv) Multiplicity of Agencies

The Committee is anxious that no fragmentation of effort should arise because of the multiplicity of agencies involved in the development cooperation effort. In the area of monitoring and reviewing projects the Committee has been presented with some evidence of lack of coordination (i) between APSO and the D/FA re projects in Lesotho (ii) between Congood and the D/FA in agreeing criteria for monitoring cofinanced projects. Both APSO and HEDCO appear to keep separate registers of experts and APSO, HEDCO and the D/FA each administer different sets of personnel in the field. The Committee feels that there is a possibility of parallelism in this and recommends that the recruitment, training and where possible the administration of personnel be principally undertaken by one agency only. In regard to the pursuit of spin-off projects DEVCO has mentioned, in Committee, the danger of fragmentation of effort but cited the Burundi project as an example of (untypically) excellent interagency cooperation. On the other hand agencies which the Committee met i.e. HEDCO, DEVCO, and ICOS agreed that cooperation was very close with the D/FA. The Committee notes that the D/FA has established a coordinating role through representation on the managing bodies or Council meetings of the principal agencies. The Committee feels that the question of interagency cooperation and coordination should be looked at more closely and recommends that the ACDC be asked to undertake a study of this area.

(i)bilateral aid as a percentage of overall ODA

(ii)the relative proportion of BAP funds allocated to its constituent parts.

viz (i)Selection of priority countries

(ii)Establishment of small-scale projects

(iii)Balanced sectoral growth

(iv)Close cooperation with recipient Governments

(v)Tied aid

(vi)Donor recipient coordination

(vii)Consistency of aid policy with general political and economic policies.

(i)Multilateral Aid vis a vis Bilateral

The Government has clearly put one of its originally enunciated principles into practice namely the increase of bilateral relative to multilateral aid from a ratio of approximately 3:98 in 1970 to 40:60 in 1984. In fact the Committee’s annual report for 1984 noted that according to projections based on the National Plan a 50:50 ratio may be achieved by 1987. The financing of Bilateral Assistance has been covered in last year’s report. The Committee’s preference continues to be the implementation of an annual growth rate for ODA of 0.05% of GNP until the target of .7% of GNP is achieved. The total Irish assistance to developing countries amounted to £31,865,000 in 1984 representing 0.22% of GNP (58.3% multilateral and 40.2% bilateral). This compares to the OECD/DAC average of .36% and to an EC average of 0.51%. In 1984 the Committee noted the predictability afforded to project planners by the National Plan’s commitment of a 0.015% increase over the years 1985-1987. In monetary terms the Committee’s 1984 report estimated that ODA would grow to £50 million by 1987, an increase of roughly 50% on the 1984 level of funding. In the following sections the Committee addresses itself to the implications of this increase for the future shape of the programme.

42.(ii) Funding of BAP constituents

The capital available to the BAP is obviously small by international standards and the Committee, in general, approves of using it through the establishment of projects and the consequent use of technical assistance. A major portion (about 65% in 1984) of available capital goes to finance the BAP programmes in the priority and other countries and the Committee considers that this is both inevitable and right given the comparatively large scale of an integrated operation. The Committee notes that the NGOS are in direct receipt of about 16% of BAP funds. This appears to be consistent with the practice in Europe generally and the Committee feels that this level of funding should at the very least be maintained. The Committee is aware of the opinion of some NGOS that too much of the Irish aid budget, which the latter believe they could find good use for, is directed to multilateral agencies. However, the Committee notes that most of the monies going to multilateral agencies are mandatory in nature and feels that the monies contributed on a voluntary basis to the various UN agencies answer to needs which Ireland on its own would not have the capability of tackling. The Committee also notes that within the NGO allocation there is a strong emphasis on funding micro-projects, very often through the missionary organisations. It approves of this in the sense that micro-projects for the most part are designed to tackle grass-roots needs and are of direct benefit to specific communities. However, the Committee urges the D/FA to maintain a flexible approach relative to other agencies who operate in a different manner. Some organisations are by their nature funding agencies only and so are only indirectly involved in projects. Others concentrate on larger scale projects. Opinion appears to differ among the NGOS as to whether monies should be allocated to their projects on a first come first served basis or whether a more structured approach would serve development needs better. The Committee recommends, in this regard, that the feasibility of establishing guidelines both for the sectoral and geographical distribution of monies be examined.

43.In this general context some NGOS have highlighted a difficulty posed for them by the present D/FA guidelines applicable to co-financing projects. The guidelines allow for capital and equipment but do not generally allow for recurrent costs which are mainly incurred in funding personnel. The Missionary NGOS in particular have made a strong case to the Committee for funding for their long-term personnel who, particularly, in the health area, are moving out of salaried positions in curative medicine and into non-salaried work in project related preventive medicine. Some NGOS have also stated that they consider it paradoxical that the guidelines encourage NGOS to establish projects catering for adult education and health care which by their very nature are personnel intensive but do not, in general, allow the cofinancing of personnel costs. While the Committee recognises that a proper balance must be struck between NGO and BAP funds in co-financing projects nevertheless it feels that this problem deserves sympathetic consideration and recommends that the D/FA look at it anew.

44.In relation to other areas funded under the BAP the Committee welcomes, as a positive step in the development of Southern Africa the allocation of monies to the Southern African Development Coordination Conference, an example of ‘south/south’ cooperation. It also welcomes a new development in 1985 namely the use of monies to promote co-financing with multilateral organisations (see para 85). The Committee understands the low priority given to the promotion of trade with developing countries on the basis that the BAP adopts a pragmatic project-oriented approach to development. Nevertheless, given its opinion that bilateral aid should be given in the context of the pursuit of more equitable political and trading relationships (see paras 84/85) the Committee feels that the 2% of funds allocated for this purpose in 1984 is somewhat on the low side. Finally the Committee has been impressed by the work of HEDCO and ICOS and considers that their funding needs should be appropriately catered for on an ongoing basis.

45.The Committee feels that the judicious injection of small amounts of capital into key areas is important. It has been stressed to the Committee that small amounts used, for instance, to fund nutrition centres in Zambia or in-house training in the Department of Public Works in Lesotho could produce benefits far outweighing the actual outlay of funds. Aer Lingus underlined this point, in a different context, relative to the ‘seed money’ for initial studies which make contracts possible.

46.A question which arises out of the Committee’s observation of the Bilateral Aid Programme in Tanzania relates to the possible injection of funds into a key area which may be ailing. Members of the Committee felt that in the case where an aspect of an integrated programme (e.g. the carpet factory which is the main industrial employer in the Kilosa region) is threatened, particularly by technological and maintenance deficiencies, a once off injection of capital might be appropriate. The Committee realises that in the light of the need for the sustained development of this and other programmes a large scale injection of capital would be difficult to achieve. The Committee welcomes efforts currently being made under the BAP to help the carpet factory diversify and also welcomes the efforts being made to seek multilateral funding in order to ensure the factory’s survival.

47.In relation to funding generally the Committee feels it would be helpful for all concerned in the development aid effort if allocations under the BAP were guided by clearly enunciated principles.

(i)Choice of Priority Countries

The criteria applying to the original choice of priority countries have been outlined at para 15(i). In fact, although it was originally intended to designate at least five countries as priority countries only four, all of them located in Eastern or Southern Africa became operational i.e. the Sudan, Tanzania, Zambia and Lesotho. Three of these were classed as least developed and one, Zambia, as low income by the UN. So relative poverty was a clear factor in their choice. All were ex British colonies with elements of history, administrative systems and a working language with which we in Ireland are familiar. In three of the four (exclusive of the Sudan) Ireland has established diplomatic representation in the person of a Development Cooperation Officer whose role is to maintain and further cooperation between the recipient Government, the Irish Government and the project leaders in the field. These institutional arrangements were established between 1978 and 1980.

49.At this juncture in the Bilateral Aid Programme and particularly in the light of an increase in absolute terms in the funding available to it the Committee considers that the principal question which arises is whether or not there is a valid case for looking at other possible priority countries. Trocaire and Concern in submissions to the Committee suggested that a priority country should be designated in Asia. Concern points out that, in fact, India and Bangla Desh are among the poorest regions of the entire world. Trocaire has also suggested Latin America as suitable and, in its submission to the Committee, the Workers Party suggested closer ties with the non-aligned countries in general and specifically with Cuba, Angola, Mozambique and Nicaragua.

50The Committee considers it a possibility that by the very fact that administrative structures with diplomatic status have been established in particular priority countries future programmes may continue indefinitely along the same lines by virtue of the inherent inertia which can be a feature of the bureaucratic process. In this context it is obvious that Ireland’s priority countries are exclusively African. A worrying aspect of this concentration on one Continent is that it could give the impression that Ireland’s sole official concern is for Africa to the exclusion of other areas which are equally in need. This might be deemed a failure to make fully operational the first principle upon which Ireland’s aid policy should be based i.e. that need/poverty level, no matter where, should be paramount in choosing priority countries.

51.The Committee is, of course, aware that the effect of bilateral aid does, in fact, extend to other Continents through co-financing with the NGOS. The activities of the NGOS are generally directed at the poorest of the poor. The NGOS because of their non-political status also have great manouvreability and are represented at the neediest locations in the Continents most in need. The Committee commends their tremendous dedication. However, the absence of a direct commitment in terms of the prioritization of a specific area in either Latin America or Asia may make it difficult for NGOS working there to focus the public’s attention on the plight of those Continents.

52.In order to make a judgement on the validity of the case for recommending the designation of a new priority country the Committee has attempted to ascertain whether or not sufficient funds could be allocated for this purpose without negatively affecting programmes in currently designated priority countries.

53.In 1984 total ODA stood at £32 million approx. Total expenditure under the BAP (a constituent of bilateral assistance) amounted to £10 million approx. and of this £6 million approx. was expended on priority countries. By 1987 total bilateral assistance will constitute 50% of ODA i.e. £25 million out of £50 million. Total bilateral assistance will thus by 1987, increase by £12 million approx. i.e. by 95%. On the assumption that approximately the same percentage increase will apply to the Bilateral Aid Programme and to its major constituent, aid to priority countries, funding for the latter will increase from £6 million approx. in 1984 to £12 million approx. in 1987. The question is now will this estimated increase be used? In correspondence with the D/FA the Committee has established that the Department envisages that ‘the greater part of the additional monies likely to be available to the BAP for the foreseeable future will be required to develop the existing programmes until they reach a level considered to be satisfactory’. The Department also considers that ‘at present only one of the four country programmes (Lesotho) could be considered to have reached the minimum satisfactory level’.^*

54.The Committee considers it reasonable to assume, on the basis of the above that the approximate level of funding in Lesotho i.e. £3 million is considered a satisfactory minimum in terms of programme development. It also assumes that on present thinking an attempt may be made over the next two years to bring the programme in the Sudan, Zambia and Tanzania up to the minimum funding level achieved in Lesotho i.e. to £3,000,000 in each case. The levels of funding in the Sudan, Zambia and Tanzania in 1984 were £.36 million, £.87 million and £1.77 million respectively. To raise the level of funding in each to £3,000,000 by 1987 would imply approximate increases of 700%, 230% and 65% respectively over 1984 levels.

55.The Committee feels that the two most significant elements emerging from the above projections are

1.the likelihood that in 1987 £6,000,000 more than in 1984 will be available for priority country funding.

2.the fact that if this were to be used to bring the three less developed programmes to the Lesotho level extremely rapid expansion would have be to envisaged in both the Sudan and in Zambia.

The Committee considers that in the light of the above a good case can be made for the designation of a new priority country on the assumption that this would cost no more than £1,000,000 in 1987. Such a designation would imply, of course, a concomitant decrease in the pace of investment in other priority countries. The Committee considers that this would not necessarily be a negative factor as it might help to avoid the twin dangers often associated with over-rapid expansion, lack of planning and insufficient administrative control.

56.In order to take account of the following considerations viz

(i)to put into practice the principle that poverty/need is the basic criterion for choice of area

(ii)to ensure that the public is aware of the needs of all stricken Continents

(iii)to encourage the NGOS in their work in Latin America and Asia

(iv)present programme needs

(v)the actual availability of finance

the Committee recommends

(a)that the priority countries currently designated should for the foreseeable future remain in that category. The countries represent a mix with differing political systems and problems. The Irish programmes established in three of them are still being developed. Furthermore, the infrastructural investment in terms of three one man diplomatic missions is so recent that its potential can hardly, as yet, have been fully tapped.

(b)direct extension into both Asia & Latin America through the designation of one priority country by 1987 and a second as funds increase thereafter. In making this recommendation the Committee is of the opinion that the following conditions should be observed.

(i)The criterion for choosing new priority countries should not necessarily be a definition of need based solely on national indices of poverty. Massive internal imbalances should also be taken into account (e.g. Brazil). Consideration might also be given to countries (e.g. Chile) with great areas of need which for various reasons (often political) do not have a high profile in development aid terms.

(ii)A direct aid programme should build where possible, on existing development aid relationships (e.g. Nicaragua).

(iii)The presently constituted diplomatic structure should not inhibit extension into new areas.

(iv)In the event of new designations, the Bilateral Aid Programme should retain the possibility of direct non-priority country funding (e.g. Burundi) and also of cofinancing with NGOS.

57.Relative to the question of the effect on aid policy of the internal political situation in priority countries the Joint Committee recommended in its 1984 Report that emergency food aid, for example, be given without regard to the political complexion of the affected country’s government. The same principle should apply to longer term aid, apart from exceptional political circumstances where perhaps the lives of project workers are endangered or the political situation is so odious that any collaboration would be clearly construed both internally and externally as a betrayal of the population (para 7). However, although the Committee recommends that aid be given, in general, irrespective of the political complexion of the receiving country it suggests the establishment of groundrules for cooperation with governments whose political system or activities differ or are at odds with the Irish experience.

58.To sum up, the Committee feels that the present choice of priority country should continue to operate but that in the light, particularly, of increasing finance other non-African possibilities should be considered on the strict basis of need only. The Committee feels that Irish aid should discriminate neither positively nor by default in favour of areas which may be more congenial in cultural terms or which may be more acceptable to one or other of the world’s superpowers. This point is important not only in terms of first principles but also in terms of developing countries’ preception of Ireland as a neutral and anti-colonial nation, a perception which, it is generally felt, adds to Ireland’s acceptability in the developing world and enables its projects in the long run to be more effective on the ground.

59.(ii) Small-Scale Projects

The Committee agrees that the establishment of small-scale projects is the right policy to adopt for a small country whose capital input relative to the larger donors is miniscule. The selection of a small area (like Kilosa in Tanzania) or a small country (e.g. Lesotho) makes it possible both for experts and the public at large to identify with the development cooperation effort. It also makes it possible to see concrete results which is important both for experts’ morale and as a means to encourage continued public support for the programmes. Selecting specific areas makes an integrated approach possible thus maximising the possible use of Irish expertise and also, more importantly, maximising the impact of the aid effort on peoples’ lives. In its visit to Tanzania and Lesotho members of the Committee’s delegation were impressed by the fact that almost all of the projects they saw appeared to make a direct improvement to the lives of the people in the project areas.

60.(iii) Sectors

In 1973 the stated objective for the Bilateral Aid Programme was that it should show balanced growth in various sectors and particularly in those where Ireland has a special interest or competence. The sectors were not at that stage clearly defined but the logical consequence of concentrating on areas where Ireland has special competence was an emphasis on rural development and the logical mechanism for achieving this was technical assistance. It is clear from expenditure to date that the sectors which have received and continue to receive priority are rural development/agriculture and education/training. Next in terms of priority is infrastructural development and following that come industry/trade and health. In 1984 the proportion of total BAP funds alloted to the above sectors was approximately as follows

It is understandable that both in terms of Irish resources and in terms of the needs of the poorest sectors in developing countries Irish spending priorities should concentrate on the development of rural areas and on education. Both sectors are key to the betterment of the conditions of the poor majority. It is also understandable that, given their capital intensive nature, there should be less emphasis on infrastructural and industrial development in Irish programmes. The Committee feels, however, that the proportion of aid to the health sector, which it considers should be a third key element in any poverty oriented programme, is too low. The Committee also feels that expenditure within the general areas mentioned should put more emphasis on the role of women and children, particularly in the light of their economic activity. Another problem which deserves consideration is migration and the closely related problem of refugees. In general the Committee is of the opinion that project work in the various sectors should enhance the participative process which is essential in order to ensure maximum benefit from projects for all.

61.The Committee considers that a definite and impressive effort is being made to put into operation in the conduct of the various programmes the original aim of balanced sectoral growth. This goal does not as yet appear to have been uniformly effected in the various priority countries. In Tanzania members of the Committee were impressed by the strong integrative approach in the BAP in Kilosa and in the Concern projects in Iringa. The BAP tackled needs in an inter-related way. For example, there is an acute shortage of fuel (i.e. wood) in Tanzania. The deafforestation which follows on the relentless search for fuel has ultimately disastrous effects for agriculture. In the Kilosa region fuel efficient methods and reafforestation were being promoted side by side as well as improved agricultural methods and infrastructure. However, health and educational needs did not appear to figure largely in the programme. In Lesotho projects did not necessarily mesh in a direct way but the Bilateral Aid Programme did tackle disparate areas such as basic technical education, health care, agricultural improvement and transport.

62.The Committee realises that each programme operates within differing sets of constraints and that it is not possible to impose on any particular area an idealized integrated programme catering for basic agricultural, health, educational, employment and shelter needs. However a properly balanced and integrated programme should always be the aim and the overall success or failure of projects should be measured against its fulfilment.

63.The Committee is encouraged by evidence that in attempting to achieve a balanced approach the D/FA is taking account of and implementing recommendations of the Advisory Council on Development Cooperation, a body specifically set up to advise the responsible Minister at the D/FA, which has issued important reports on Agriculture, Health and Education. The Committee welcomes the fact that the D/FA exercises flexibility in relation to the establishment of sectoral priorities. It considers flexibility essential for an adequate response to the identification of new needs or to the reevaluation of previous approaches. Flexibility requires, of course, to be exercised within the framework of established guidelines relative to priorities and objectives, the absence of which to date may have been a factor in the lack of a comprehensively integrated approach to programmes in the various priority countries.

64.(a) Rural/Agriculture

In the light of the fact that the poorest in Africa are generally the rural poor and also of the fact that a viable agricultural sector makes the difference between life and death for millions of people the Committee considers that in drawing up programmes a strong emphasis on agriculture/rural development is essential. The Committee notes that an ACDC commissioned report (Feb. ‘83) on Agriculture recommended that the expected White Paper should set a target for agricultural aid. It also recommended that a defined programme for agriculture should be separately identified for each component of the BAP and that the volume of aid allocated to rural development for the benefit directly or indirectly of agricultural production should be gradually increased. The Committee supports these recommendations. It would however stress that flexibility in drawing up the various parts of a programme must be retained in order to ensure the most effective response to an area’s actual needs and also to safeguard cooperation with local authorities.

65.The Committee feels that in drawing up the agricultural component of rural development plans close attention should be given to the effect of cash-cropping on subsistence farmers in order to ensure that the former is not pursued at the expense of the latter. The Committee is aware that the pattern of land tenure differs from country to country depending on political, traditional and historical factors. It feels that when programmes are being drawn up for the development of a particular area due consideration should be given to the pattern of land tenure in order to ensure that the benefit accruing to the poorer sections of society from a programme will be maximized. Both of the above considerations, to a lesser or greater degree, illustrate the need for a sound socio-economic, as distinct from a purely technical, approach to programme planning. The Committee notes that all Irish programmes emphasise dairying in one form or another. While the Committee in its 1984 report accepted that milk products can play an important role in livestock based communities, as protein supplement and even in helping to redistribute income, nevertheless, given that the role of milk in development aid is controversial, it might be asked if there is a sufficiently critical approach to it and if project reviewers are satisfied that Ireland’s aid effort is justified in its undoubted emphasis on this area.

66.It is understandable that Ireland with its strong agricultural base should have a pool of technical experts in the field and that the very existence of Irish technical expertise should influence the shape of programmes. However, in Ireland’s recent economic experience there has been a great emphasis on new industrialization and concomitant rapid urbanization. Many developing countries are experiencing rapid urbanization without, however, the benefit of industrialization. It is also a fact that the rapidly expanding cities of the developing world suffer very high levels of poverty. In drawing up future programmes both of these elements should be kept in mind as, apart from their intrinsic merit, urban oriented projects could perhaps enable Ireland’s urban population to better identify with the Bilateral Aid Programme.

67.(b) Education

Education is a basic human right. It enriches and develops the individual person and is also an essential instrument in the struggle to raise living standards. An educated mother will ensure higher nutritional standards for her child. An educated farmer will produce more. In its Education Report of February 1984 the ACDC noted that the two great educational needs in Africa, in particular, were universal primary education and managerial/technical education. The Committee notes that HEDCO, whose administrative costs are funded by the BAP, takes account of one of these needs in its policy of concentrating on post graduate and technician courses. The basis for this policy is HEDCO’s opinion that developing countries now have the capacity, in general, to service undergraduate courses.

68.Education in Africa, particularly at higher levels, is generally urban centred and industry oriented whereas the great majority of people live and work in rural areas. Returned development workers have stressed to the Committee the paucity of basic activities in rural schools, the mere availability of books being highest on the list of needs. The ACDC report noted the need for curriculum development to suit the rural populations and the need to diversify into non-formal adult and distance teaching. The Committee is impressed by the high level of commitment to education and training evidenced by the use of one third approximately of total BAP funds in this area. However, within the educational component of the programme primary educational needs seem virtually ignored.

69.Members of the Committee noted on their visit to Tanzania and Lesotho that, in the past, policy does not appear to have encouraged educational development in a uniform manner throughout the priority countries. Whereas in Lesotho there is a strong commitment to education both in terms of secondary (inclusive of technical) education and teacher training the same has not held true in Tanzania. Members of the Committee noted that in the Kilosa region of Tanzania, where the Bilateral Aid Programme is centred, technical education, which could have a bearing on the success or otherwise of local industry, appeared to be lacking. This would appear to have constituted a gap in an otherwise excellently integrated programme. The Committee is pleased to note that under the Government’s Bilateral Aid Programme plans are now well advanced for the establishment of a technical education centre in the Kilosa region. It considers that one of the reasons for the difference in approach vis a vis Tanzania and Lesotho and for the general lack of investment in primary education may be bound up with the constraints of working within locally devised programmes and having to adapt to varying conditions within host countries.

70.The Committee notes that the ACDC Education Report of February 1984 recommended that the present level of funding for education and training be maintained and that primary education be given due weight. It also recommended that recent Irish experience in the primary and community schools, the RTCS and with the handicapped be drawn upon. The Committee endorses these recommendations and also recommends that a specific target be set up for the educational component of each country programme.

71.(c) Health

Health is another basic human right. It is also an essential prerequisite for economic and social development. The Committee notes that the proportion of expenditure on health under the BAP has declined between 1983 and 1984. Total resources allocated to health care amounted to 5% max of expenditure under the BAP in 1984. Health expenditure as a proportion of total expenditure on priority countries in 1984 amounted to 2% only. The Committee is of the opinion, given the massive problems associated with health care, particularly in rural areas where the greatest poverty is experience and on which Ireland’s development programmes are focussed, that this proportion is too low.

72.Relative to Ireland’s bilateral aid programmes in its four priority countries the Committee notes that, to date, health as a sector figures significantly only in the case of Lesotho. Committee members noted in the Kilosa region of Tanzania, that input into the health sector appeared to be lacking. Health services in general appeared to be in a pitiful state, in particular, the local hospital - the equivalent of a regional hospital here. The Committee welcomes the D/FA’s decision to use funds from the BAP to rehabilitate the hospital building and considers that both this decision and the decision to establish a technical education facility in the region are good examples of the kind of flexibility it considers necessary in programme administration.

73.The Committee has heard evidence from volunteers, recently returned from Zambia, about the state of medical care there. They stressed that preventive medicine, in particular nutrition centres concentrating on children, was both crucial and cost-effective. Small projects with small inputs and administered through the aid agencies were said to be best. The Committee notes the observation in the ACDC’s November 1984 report that curative, hospital based medicine is both costly and concentrated in urban areas. It also notes the ACDC’s recommendation that an increased proportion of Irish health assistance to developing countries should aim at developing new and/or strengthening and supporting existing Primary Health Care Programmes. In this connection the Committee welcomes the D/FA’s intention to promote the primary health care sector in the Kilosa region.

74.On the basis of the foregoing the Committee recommends that a greater proportion of BAP funds be allocated to the health sector with an emphasis on preventive medicine. This should not however exclude an effort to ensure basic standards in project area hospitals.

75.(d) Role of Women

It is generally accepted that the lot of women in the developing countries is particularly hard. In the developing world as a whole the proportion of women in agriculture, at 70%, is extremely high. Women constitute a majority of the world’s subsistence food producers and at the same time continue to bear the burden of household duties. The latter often involve the very onerous tasks of fetching water and gathering firewood over long distances. Women are generally excluded from ownership and from the formal decision making process. They also, generally, receive less formal education. It is the Committee’s view that each Irish development cooperation programme should include an element specifically designed both to directly relieve the disproportionate burden which women bear and to use their skills in the development process itself particularly in the areas of rural development and preventive medicine. Men are now finding a new role as cash croppers and this can place an additional burden on women who, for instance, traditionally weed the crops. In the light of this, training schemes for men should be critically examined to ensure that all members of the family unit benefit from them. In making these observations the Committee does not wish to imply that programmes should attempt to change any indigenous social structure, which, in defining their respective roles and their relative authority, is acceptable to both women and men.

76.(e) Role of Children

Some children play a traditional role in the economy and suffer as a result. In Lesotho up to 35% of boys between the ages of 6-12 are not receiving formal primary education at any one time. This in the main appears to be due to the practice of employing young boys in herding. Only some of these will receive formal primary education in their teens. The Committee feels that educational programmes should, if at all possible, take factors like this into account, perhaps in the context of an integrated rural development programme, in order to establish whether or not some system could be devised to enable such children to benefit from basic education.

77.(f) Migration

The Committee is aware that migration from peripheral to ‘core’ or industrialized areas is a feature of many countries in Southern Africa in particular. It adds another dimension to the burden borne by women. In visiting Lesotho members of the Committee saw, at first hand, the effects of male migration on the social structure and quality of life of families left behind. In Lesotho large numbers of men are forced through economic necessity to spend long periods of work in South Africa leaving their wives and children at home. This generates economic insecurity, marital disharmony, material and emotional ill and sexual and legitimacy problems. While the Committee recognises that little can be done in the short term to resolve the causes of male migration it recommends that programme managers and workers take the underlying difficult social situation into account when planning and administering programmes. The Committee considers that at the very minimum, volunteer workers in high migration areas should be given some basic training both in what the problems are and how to approach them.

78.(g) Refugees

Some NGOS and, in a submission to the Committee, the Irish Anti-Apartheid Movement have drawn attention to the plight of refugees in Africa and in particular to the situation of South African refugees. The Committee notes the distinction between refugees driven by hunger and those (e.g. from South Africa or Afghanistan) driven by political oppression. It is felt that from the point of view of bilateral aid action relative to the former is properly in the area of disaster relief. The Irish Anti-Apartheid Movement has suggested that the latter category, members of which may well become their country’s future leaders and administrators, should receive direct aid from the BAP particularly in the areas of education and training. The Committee feels that this suggestion is worthy of consideration and recommends that the D/FA seriously consider its feasibility.

80.(a) Setting priorities

In the light of a poverty oriented policy the Committee feels that there is a delicate balance to be struck, in establishing programmes, between the perceived priorities or receiving administrations and the basic needs of an area as perceived by the donor. It is obvious that no Irish programme will attempt to establish a large prestige project, which in any case, given the recession and a new realism in many post-colonial countries, is probably a thing of the past. However, there may be tension between competing infrastructural/higher educational or cash crop needs and community needs such as clean water, accessible fuel, staple food and basic health and education. It is obvious that poverty oriented development aid, in order to enhance the quality of life generally, must tackle varying needs in an integrated manner. The Committee feels that in formulating a programme designed to strike the right balance a donor may legitimately attempt to exert pressure (possibly in the context of a package mainly dictated by the local administration) to have a glaring basic need addressed. The fact that aid, particularly from larger countries, is often criticised on the grounds that it is designed to suit the economies or foreign policies of the donor countries and that it may, in some cases, be more of a wrongheaded imposition than a genuine contribution to recipient countries should not prevent donors, whose aid is genuinely untied, from attempting at least to persuade recipients to accept programme elements designed to cater for basic needs.

81.(b) Local administration

On their visit to Tanzania and Lesotho members of the Committee were very impressed by the closeness of the relationship they observed between project leaders/workers and local authorities and by the respect which in almost all cases, characterized it. Some difficulties relating to local administrative inefficiency were however brought to the delegation’s notice. These were not typical of the projects as a whole but do deserve mention to illustrate the real conditions within which programmes are pursued. In terms of planning, expert project workers, in particular, can be frustrated by the fact that having concluded a study or made a report no response is forthcoming. In terms of putting decisions into effect and administering new programmes the Committee noted some despondency among experts (particularly in Lesotho) about the ability of the local administration to carry these through. The need to impart administrative skills at practically all levels seemed obvious and the Committee recommends that more be done in this area either through placing skilled administrators, temporarily, in key positions or, probably more importantly, through more intensive training programmes than at present.

82.The Committee is aware of accusations that corrupt practices are encountered in many recipient countries. The Committee is of the view that codes of conduct acceptable to both donor and recipient countries should be drawn up before programmes are put into place and that these should be recognised as mutually binding. The Committee has reason to believe that this type of approach would not necessarily be unacceptable to host governments. It recommends that agreed codes of conduct be established, perhaps within the ambit of Technical Cooperation Agreements, which would be designed to give direction to projects, resolve misunderstandings and avoid corruptive influences.

83.(c) Localization

The Committee fully agrees with the philosophy behind localization i.e. that the aim of a project or programme is to create a viable locally run unit with the prospect of long-term survival. Members were impressed at the manner in which the system of counter-parting i.e. parallel local management functioned in the bilateral programmes in both Tanzania and Lesotho. The Committee feels that the process of localization is a particularly delicate one. On the one hand, leaving expert assistance overlong in situ may either create overdependence or frustrate local management talent. On the other hand the danger exists that a premature withdrawal of expertise could kill a project. The Committee feels it is important to continue to inject some capital inputs into projects after localization to enable them to survive the transitional period from the expert aided stage to local viability. Both at project level and even at Prime Ministerial level in Lesotho members of the Committee heard appeals that in the process of localization programme administrators should adhere to a policy of ‘hastening slowly’. The Committee supports this approach.

86.The Committee is aware that there is regular donor liaison in Lesotho and Tanzania and that it is Irish policy to provide expertise in cases of larger projects funded by other donors. The Committee is encouraged by the fact that consultations have taken place with the EC and international financial institutions in order to establish a basis for cofinancing projects. The Committee commends the policy of seeking backup aid for Bilateral Aid Programme projects. The Committee is aware that in these recessionary times many of the larger donors are turning from capital intensive, prestige projects, to smaller projects. It feels that Ireland’s experience in the area of smaller projects is particularly valuable and should be promoted in the various policy and coordination fora in which it participates.

87.(vii) Consistency of aid policy with general political/economic policies In the introduction to this Report the Committee has already stated its opinion that the process of development cooperation must be placed within the context of the pursuit of equitable political and trading relationships with the developing world. In general terms the Committee feels that Ireland should positively pursue a policy of attempting to further the establishment of a new international economic order in order to bring about the structural changes in the world’s financial, trading and economic systems which are essential if longer term aid is to be a real instrument of development and not just a salve to the collective Western conscience. In the context of its examination of the BAP the Committee has touched on the activities of the World Bank, the IMF, UNCTAD and the operation of the GATT and its related agreements/ derogations. Criticism has been expressed about the operations, relative to developing countries, of the international financial institutions which may be attempting to impose a particular economic model across the board without regard to the necessity for fundamental reforms at a global level. The Committee urges that Ireland use whatever opportunities present themselves in international financial fora to support the demand of the developing world for a more just economic order from which all countries will ultimately benefit.

88.In relation to the activities of the GATT and of UNCTAD the Committee notes that the low volume of trade between Ireland and our priority countries may be a factor in excluding the D/FA from making a formalized input to decision making on development related trade matters. The Committee is anxious that the voting policy pursued in the various fora mentioned be consistent with Irish Development Aid policy. In this regard it recommends that the ACDC be requested to assess whether or not interdepartmental decision making processes are sufficiently coordinated and to make appropriate recommendations.