Committee Reports > List of Committees > Joint > 1994 > Committee on Women's Rights (4th Committee) > Report - Joint Committee on Women's Rights 1993

Annex

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank a number of people who assisted them in the preparation of this report. In the first place we express our appreciation to Theresa Ahearn, Chairperson of the Fourth Joint Committee on Women’s Rights, Monica Barnes ex-Chairperson of the Third Joint Oireachtas Committee on Women’s Rights and to Mary Wallace T.D. Vice Chairperson of the Committee all of whom gave us invaluable assistance in directing our research approach.

The survey which formed a vital part of our study would not have been possible without support from the Irish Countrywomen’s Association, the Irish Farmers Association Farm Family Committee and The Western Women’s Link. In particular we would like to thank Margaret Kennedy, Development Officer and Noreen Mangan, Chairperson of the Rural Committee of the Irish Countrywomen’s Association, Rosemary Smith of the Irish Farmers’ Association Farm Family National Committee and Venetia McEllin of the Western Women’s Link.

For highly efficient and prompt analysis of the survey results we would like to acknowledge the contribution of Aideen Keaney of Trinity College Dublin Statistics Department and to thank Edel Kane for questionnaire lay out and design.

We are also very appreciative of the unstinting support of Una Connolly, former Clerk of the Joint Oireachtas Committee on Women’s Rights, who was always available to assist us when required.

Finally, a special word of thanks to all the women who took the time and trouble to complete the questionnaire and all the experts in the area who afforded us the opportunity to discuss the issues with them. A full list of these experts, and those who assisted the authors in other ways, is presented in Appendix A.

Jim Dorgan, Curtin Dorgan Associates,

Eileen Drew, Centre for Women’s Studies, Trinity College,

Candy Murphy, Economic consultant.

August 1993

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

SUMMARY

Introduction

This reports looks at rural development and the role which women play in it. It comes at a time of renewed interest in rural economies and communities. The report reviews the current situation facing rural women in Ireland today and makes a number of proposals to Government aimed at increasing the participation of rural women in the development of their local areas. This includes a review of the issues which affect rural women such as their access to public services and their participation in decision making.

Rural Development Policy and Practice

Rural development has emerged as an important concern of policy at EC and national level. Its importance has grown as the prospects for agriculture have declined. Rural development is now seen as an indispensable element in EC policies aimed at ensuring viable rural economies.

Rural development involves a multi-sectoral approach to economic development which has social and cultural as well as economic objectives. It is based on the close involvement of rural communities in its planning and implementation. Although the Irish Government has taken some steps to follow the lead from Brussels a coherent development strategy for rural Ireland has not been developed. Nor is the key role which women can play in rural development being addressed in any serious way. Such an integrated approach is urgently required if rural areas are to prosper in the 1990s.

Literature on Women and Rural Development

Statistics tend to underestimate, or completely overlook, the economic contribution which rural women make to development. This arises for a number of reasons and in a variety of ways. The net effect is that women’s work on farms, in other enterprises and in the home is under counted. This both reflects and reinforces a subsidiary status in rural life as exemplified by the limited participation of women in the running of agricultural and other local and regional organisations.

A number of reports by the Council for the Status of Women based on women’s conferences in the early 1980s noted difficulties encountered by women in attending training courses, accessing urban based services and getting legal advice. Poor transport, isolation and lack of confidence were further obstacles to their participation in the life of their communities. Improved legal status, joint ownership of the family farm and profit sharing were frequently expressed demands. Many of these conclusions and recommendations have been endorsed in the recently published report by the Commission on the Status of Women.

Statistical Profile of Women in Rural Areas

Rural areas are defined for census purposes as areas outside urban settlements of more than 1,50 persons. The Census data indicates that women were in the minority in rural areas, a response to the limited opportunities available to them in rural Ireland. Less than 25 per cent of women in rural Ireland worked outside the home. Of those who were working, less than 10 per cent were employed in agriculture.

In the census, married women who do not work outside the home are assigned to the status of their husband and presumed to be dependent on him. However, the Farm Structure Survey of 1987 indicates that 45,000 married women work the equivalent of 25 per cent to 100 per cent of a full year on their family’s farm. Overall more than one quarter of the people engaged in agriculture, whether part time or full time are women. This contribution is not currently recognised in official statistics.

Women and State Interventions in Rural Development

A number of programmes exist which are exclusively aimed at helping women in both urban and rural areas to participate more fully in the economic and social life of their communities. New Opportunities for Women and Local Employment Initiatives are two EC-based schemes directed at promoting training and enterprise amongst women. The Department of Social Welfare operates a scheme to help women’s groups in disadvantaged areas. Funds from this programme has been found to be very useful in assisting women but tend to be limited in size and duration.

The Operational Programme for Rural Development, LEADER and Teagasc programmes are specifically aimed at rural areas. These are large scale programmes, but their impact in women is, at best, indirect. In fact there is little information available on women’s role and participation in these schemes. What information is available indicates a low level of involvement by women.

Reference is also made to other programmes, such as those by FAS, CERT and the PESP Companies which have some involvement in rural areas. Again, although the scope, and the need, for women’s participation is high, there is little information available on their impact on rural women.

Survey of Rural Women

A questionnaire survey was undertaken to establish the views and priorities of rural women. Background questions reveal that the sample were somewhat younger than the total population of rural women, a higher percentage were married and had dependent children. The sample was relatively well-educated with over one fifth having had third level education.

Asked about the issues facing them, respondents gave a high priority to improved access to information, in particular employment information. In terms of services, the respondents felt that training services were the most acutely needed. This was also identified as the key obstacle to participation in the labour force. Respondents wanted more information about state services in training, health, education and community development. Their level of knowledge about funding for development activities in rural areas was poor. But those who had knowledge and made application were often successful in receiving small sums of money. While there was a high level of knowledge of new initiatives in local areas, there was low female involvement in them.

In terms of information needs, there was strong support for the creation of mechanisms aimed at improving access to information such as through multi-functional centres and “freefone” information services. In relation to support services, those which assist with the care of elderly relations or with child care received the strongest endorsement, ahead of transport and employment advice. There was high interest in education and training with adult education the most favoured form of education and assertiveness training was mentioned by a number of respondents. In attaining economic independence, entitlement to employment and social welfare schemes were seen as the most important.

Asked about the areas of greatest economic potential in rural Ireland, tourism was considered to have the greatest potential followed by agriculture. Multi-national companies were considered to have the least potential. The majority of respondents favoured self employment opportunities with a marked preference for part-time, permanent and home-based forms of work.

The survey results indicate very high levels of isolation and dissatisfaction among rural women with their decision making role. Policies to address this situation are urgently required if viable rural communities are to be maintained and developed.

Recommendations

A vibrant rural economy requires integrated programmes which take into account both economic and social issues and which are multi-sectoral covering agriculture, industry and services, and broader issues of regional development. At present, programmes both of EC and national origin are fragmented and transitory without clear priorities. They do not represent a coherent and focused stragey for rural development. Institutional structures have so far not been established to integrate existing programmes or develop new ones.

The following recommendations to address these deficiencies, are grouped into four categories dealing, respectively, with integration of rural development policies and programmes; greater recognition of women’s roles; positive action to ensure that women are able to fully participate; and better access to services. Details of these recommendations, including indicative costs, are given in a table at the end of this Summary. Chapter 7, Section 7.2 contains a fuller treatment of the recommendations.

1. Integration

There is an urgent need for an integrated rural development policy in Ireland. This should be promoted by a Rural Development Council which would be representative of the voluntary and public bodies involved in rural development.

This Council would advise the Government on rural development policy and while not an executive agency should have funds for research, pilot projects, and for funding rurally-based coordinators/facilitators.

The promotion of policies to facilitate the full participation of women in rural economic and social life would be one of the principal functions of the Council and this would be fully articulated in its board membership, organisation and staffing. Consistent with recommendations which follow, a minimum of 40 per cent of its board members would be women.

The Government should set up an Inter-Departmental Working Party to develop, in consultation with the Rural Development Council, integrated policies for rural areas.

The Rural Development Council would work with and through existing public and voluntary bodies.

The Rural Development Council should bring together the development, education and training organisations (e.g. FAS, Teagasc, CERT, the VECs) to develop integrated programmes for rural women. These agencies should develop and implement systems to increase participation on their programmes by rural women.

An integrated approach is also required of the development agencies (e.g. IDA, Shannon Development, Bord Failte, Udaras) which should place the primary emphasis on the development of local enterprise in rural areas. Initiatives to assist women must take account of their other roles in the family.

Special funding for women’s groups (e.g. NOW, Department of Social Welfare scheme, Local Employment Initiatives) should be continued and expanded.

These special funding schemes should become established pathways for women into mainline funding in rural areas (e.g. Operational Programme for Rural Development and CAP funds) which should allocate a larger share of their resources to women.

In the organisation and delivery of training and development programmes for women’s groups, account should be taken of the evolutionary process whereby women’s groups tend to progress from start up, through training, to initiating an enterprise followed by the need for back-up support in the initial years of the enterprise.

2. Recognition of Women’s Contribution

Women’s vital role in rural development must be recognised by the public sector and society generally. The CSO’s enumerations systems should be altered so as to accurately record women’s contribution to farming and other family-based businesses.

The Rural Development Council should prepare and disseminate material to schools, public bodies and the media encouraging a positive image of women and their contribution to rural development.

3. Positive Action

Positive action is required to redress the gender balance in rural areas. The Department of Equality should monitor the Government’s commitment to ensuring that the participation of women on State boards reaches 40 per cent in four years. The Government should put pressure on nominating bodies to encourage them to propose women to decision-making boards so as to attain the 40 per cent figure in the alotted time.

The Government’s commitment to gender proofing must be enacted through the development of effective monitoring of rural women’s participation in structures and programmes affecting rural areas. The Rural Development Council should advise the Department with respect to such procedures.

4. Access

The following initiatives should be taken to improve access in rural areas:

- Pilot studies of multi-functional women’s resource centres in rural areas to provide information and facilitate the provision of services (e.g. care for children and elderly people);

- Pilot studies of low priced help-line telephone services primarily for rural women unable to access resource centres or other information centres;

- Pilot studies of different approaches to improved rural transport services.

The Rural Development Council should take the initiative for launching the pilot studies on the multi-functional resource centres. But all of these pilot initiatives should be evaluated by the Rural Development Council and decisions then taken on long term funding of such services and networks.

Eligibility requirements for social welfare services should be examined by the Department of Equality to ensure equal access to women. Any required changes should also be made in eligibility requirements for state education and training services.

5. Research

Further research is needed to establish the true extent of women’s involvement in state funded programmes, to identify the needs of rural women, particularly in more remote areas and to ensure the most effective use of limited resources.

Overall Conclusion

Rural women are increasingly active through women’s groups such as the ICA, Western Women’s Links and the Family Farm Committee of the Irish Farmers Association. This enthusiasm and energy must now be complemented by an integrated and coherent strategy for rural women along the lines recommended in this report.

CHAPTER 1

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction

This report looks at the position of rural women in Ireland today and the role which they play in the development of their areas. It examines the issues that affect their lives and draws attention to the changing nature of the world they live in. It looks in particular at funding for rural development and the access which women have to such funding, including their participation in decision-making. The report concludes with a number of proposals to Government aimed at increasing the participation of women in rural development to the benefit of all people living in rural areas.

The report was commissioned by the Third Joint Oireachtas Committee on Women’s Rights of the 23rd Dail on the basis of a detailed project proposal which is summarised below. The report comes at a time when there is a renewed interest in rural development at both national and EC level as a means of assisting rural areas to adapt to changes in agriculture, principally brought about by the reforms in the Common Agricultural Policy. It also comes at a time when community activity and interest in self-help have never been stronger.

1.2 Terms of Reference

The Third Joint Committee on Women’s Rights was established in December 1989 by resolution of the Houses of the Oireachtas to examine or propose legislation which materially affects women; to consider means to eliminate discrimination against women; to consider specific economic and social disadvantages applying to women in Ireland; and to make appropriate policy recommendations. In pursuit of these objectives the Committee decided to commission a research project with the following terms of reference to:

1.examine the situation of women in rural Ireland today;

2.review existing policy, statistics and research on rural development to draw out the major findings of relevance to rural women;

3.document the funding mechanisms available for rural development and their impact on women;

4.obtain information from a selected number of “key informants” on:

(i)the key issues facing rural women, focusing on access to information, funding and other services and

(ii)their views on how their situation could best be improved;

5.undertake a survey of women in rural areas aimed at quantifying and validating the issues and potential remedies emanating from the analysis outlined above;

6.make recommendations on:

-filling the gaps in information, access to services and other obstacles which inhibit progress in the position of rural women in economic and social life;

-redirecting funds to better meet the requirements of rural women;

-steps required to ensure that the gender issue receives greater attention from policy makers, administrators and analysts working in the area of rural development;

-the need for further research.

The graphic on the following page illustrates the principal elements in the methodology adopted for this study.

1.3 Contents of the Report

Chapter 2 reviews national and European Community (EC) rural development policy and practice while Chapters 3 and 4 look respectively at the relevant research literature and statistics in order to obtain a profile of women in rural Ireland. Chapter 5 contains a listing of existing state and EC mechanisms for women and/or rural development and reviews their impact on women. Based on the foregoing work, Chapter 6 sets out the results of a survey of rural women. The study’s findings are summarised in Chapter 7 which also draws out the main conclusions and proposes a programme of action aimed at ensuring that the needs and expectations of rural women are fully considered when framing future policy, programmes and actions.

CHAPTER 2

RURAL DEVELOPMENT: POLICY AND PRACTICE

2.1 What is Rural Development?

Rural development is defined by two leading authorities as follows:

“we should view development as progress towards a complex of growth and equity goals which would include improvement of life chances of individuals, reduction of poverty and unemployment and lessening of inequality. The attainment of these goals cannot be met by development in the farm sector alone. Hence it is necessary to take a multi-sectoral approach to development. Development inputs must be of a form that matches the needs and aspirations of rural inhabitants, particularly those whose opportunities are very limited. Where the distribution of resources and past development efforts have led to unequal access to the basis of social power, IRD (Integrated Rural Development) must attempt to reduce these imbalances.” (O’Hara and Cummins, 1992).

This definition indicates that rural development should:

- have social and cultural as well as economic objectives;

- extend beyond the farm sector alone;

- involve a multi-sectoral approach;

- include the views of rural inhabitants in framing policy;

- focus on reducing imbalances;

- promote equal access by rural dwellers to resources and opportunities.

Rural development therefore encompasses both economic and social issues and to be successful must be based on an integrated approach to development which empowers rural dwellers to forge their own destiny.

The scale of the issues involved and their importance to the overall development of Ireland is recognised when one considers that 43 per cent of the population currently live in rural areas (i.e. outside towns of more than 1,500 people). While agriculture has been the main focus of economic development in rural areas, this must be set in the context where:

- the number of farmers declined by 32 per cent nationally between 1966 and 1986;

- only 36 per cent of farms are full-time units;

- the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has moved from restrictions in output to begin dismantling the price support system which is at its foundation;

- job opportunities in urban areas for those leaving the land are not available in anything like sufficient numbers;

- by 1989 60 per cent of family farms had an income below £5,000 while 12 per cent had an income in excess of £15,000 (Teagasc, 1990).

2.2 Irish Policy on Rural Development

The government’s objective for rural areas was defined recently as:

“to relieve social deprivation and create viable rural communities by realising the potential of rural development, through the development of agriculture, tourism and industry, by combating the disadvantages of peripherality and by establishing new institutional arrangements while protecting the rural environment” (Cuddy et al., 1990).

Current Irish government policy in relation to rural areas is therefore to encourage diversification of rural economies in the light of the major restrictions on CAP and others to be imposed by the new GATT. Nevertheless agriculture will continue to be the main sector in rural areas as ex-Commissioner MacSharry has stated:

“agriculture is and will remain the major sector in (rural) areas for the foreseeable future. But in addition to support for agriculture the Commission sees the need to support rural development in its broader sense” (Cuddy et al., 1990).

Despite stated policy there has been consistent criticism of the Government’s failure so far to develop coherent strategies aimed at achieving these objectives.

O’Hara and Commins (1992) argue that the re-emergence of rural development as a policy issue has occurred as “an expedient of EC policy making”. They state that:

“over the past few years rural development has reappeared on the Irish policy agenda, not because of any major realignment in the national government’s concerns or priorities, but rather as a response to the prominence being given to this theme in EC policy”.

Changes emanating from Brussels have required Irish policy makers to adopt different approaches such as “area-based plans, promotion of partnerships between agencies, greater involvement of the private sector, multi-sectoral programmes and even (however limited) regional involvement in the drawing up of a national plan” (O’Hara and Commins, 1992).

Failure to develop clear strategies may result in an inability to grasp opportunities and thus to achieve the overall objectives of maintaining rural populations and the viability of farms. To prevent such a scenario O’Hara and Commins (1992) recommend that:

“Policy for Irish rural development needs to be proactive. It should emerge from an articulated vision of the kind of rural society and regional economic balance that Ireland wants to have rather than as a set of pragmatic and inadequately co-ordinated responses to the current problems of the agricultural sector - and to the EC’s attempts to deal with these”.

2.3 EC Policy on Rural Development

The suggestion that Irish rural development policy is being orchestrated from Brussels makes it necessary for us to look in some detail at the exact nature of current EC policy.

Diagram of Methodology

A statement by Jacques Delors in 1990 indicates the seriousness with which rural development - and the need to develop integrated strategies to achieve it - is being viewed in Brussels. Mr. Delors states that:

“Rural development is a collective good which is fundamentally linked to regional planning. It requires a new approach, a departure from present-day thinking. In clear terms rural development cannot be left solely to market forces because the market is incapable of providing the requisite guidance..... Through its programme - albeit modest in scale - in favour of rural development, the European economy is seeking to draw the attention of public opinion and regional planning to a hidden treasure” (Delors, 1990).

The Commission’s report “The Future of Rural Society” (CEC, 1988a) sets out EC policy on rural areas for the 1990’s. In this document the EC clearly indicates that agriculture must be seen as one element and not the only element of an integrated rural policy. Rural development is now in the mainstream of EC policy.

As the 1988 document states the Community’s approach to rural development is guided by three fundamental considerations:

“economic and social cohesion, in an enlarged community of very pronounced regional diversity;

the unavoidable adjustment of farming in Europe to actual circumstances on the markets and the implications of this adjustment not only for farmers and farm workers but also for the rural economy in general;

the protection of the environment and the conservation of the Community’s natural assets” (CEC, 1988a).

This policy must be seen in the light of the fact that in only 10 out of the 166 regions in the EC, does agricultural employment account for as much as 30 per cent of total employment while at the same time the number of inhabitants in rural areas is increasing, average ages are lower and social diversification is quite marked.

The EC identifies three standard problems in rural areas:

- pressure of modern development in areas close to urban areas (’Areas 1’);

- rural decline in areas of potential diversification (’Areas 2’);

- rural decline in areas where the scope for diversification is extremely limited (’Areas 3’).

For each of these three Areas the EC has devised an appropriate strategy. However the EC makes the point that specific policies and programmes must be based on actual local circumstances. “The basic strategies must therefore be tailored to the particular economic and social circumstances of the relevant regions” (CEC, 1988).

Policies for strengthening and protecting the rural environment are crucial for Areas 1, while Areas 2 require polices for creating lasting economically justified jobs outside the farming sector. Areas 3 require a long term development outlook aimed at assisting small farmers to modernise, encouraging local firms to develop and conserving the natural environment.

Rural development features prominently in the current Structural Fund regime - two of the five objectives refer specifically to this issue: Objective 1, promoting development in regions lagging behind, includes a number of rural development measures and Objective 5 (b) promoting the development of rural areas outside Objective 1 regions. For Ireland therefore rural development measures form part of the overall Irish strategy for an Objective 1 region.

2.4 Future EC Policy

Rural development is one of the priority objectives for future intervention through the structural funds. The EC plans to achieve this objective through:

- overall regional development programmes and

- specific rural development programmes.

Throughout the EC similar themes emerge in relation to achieving stable rural areas:

- measures to promote on and off-farm diversification;

- land use management and environmental conservation;

- development of human resources/training;

- diffusion of new technologies and infrastructural improvements (Cuddy et al., 1990).

The framework regulation for reform of the Structural Fund provides for a new method of intervention for rural development support under Objective 1. This framework will be founded on a multi-disciplinary and multi-sectoral approach. It will place greater emphasis on stimulating and mobilising local initiatives. The EC document (CEC, 1991) suggests the following measures, all involving social partners:

- stepping up training, information and awareness campaigns;

- creating a network of rural development agencies (or agents) to play a stimulating, mobilising and co-ordinating role;

- producing a practical guide for rural development promoters indicating available sources of information, funds and the contracts to be drawn up in order to be included in the Community scheme.

The document concludes by stating the Commission’s desire “to preserve a European rural development model based on the promotion of family farms and on balanced regional planning”.

Exploitation of the indigenous development potential of rural regions will play a key role in this context. EC effort is geared towards supporting not replacing indigenous potential.

2.5 Areas of Diversification

As stated above rural development policy at both EC and national level is aimed at maintaining rural populations through diversification of rural economies. A strategy is required therefore for identifying such diversification opportunities in rural areas and for developing mechanisms at both EC and national level for implementing policies to achieve such diversification. Agricultural policy in the future will no longer be based purely on economic considerations but will also be concerned with more general issues such as food security, environmental protection and employment levels in rural areas. The type of diversification required must reflect these priorities. The critical issue is access to non-farming jobs within commuting distance of rural residents.

Areas of potential diversification have been identified as follows:

- tourism - “rural” and “agri-tourism”;

- recreation and leisure activities utilising the natural resources and heritage of the countryside;

- education and training services within the rural environment;

- exploiting the potential benefits of new information and communication technologies;

- forestry;

- small and medium enterprises (SME’s) in service and industrial sectors;

- “alternative” agriculture.

The EC document (CEC, 1991) states that:

“The rural economy depends more and more on activities outside food production both on and off the farm. Forestry, tourism, crafts, small business and financial services are only some examples of the sectors which now make a significant contribution to income and employment in Rural Areas”.

and that rural development policy should:

“encourage economic diversification and the development of indigenous potential of rural areas through the creation of small and medium-sized enterprises and local services, through the development of human resources (strengthening the education and training provision and improving access to employment) and through improved living and working conditions (preservation of the natural environment, improvement in physical infrastructure. provision of transport, medical and child care facilities)” (CEC, 1991).

To promote these activities in rural areas requires strong infrastructural support as well as the provision of appropriate training and education for rural dwellers and incentives to encourage them to exploit these opportunities.

2.6 Implementation of Rural Development Policies

At present a wide range of measures are in place aimed at developing and diversifying rural economies. Some of these are EC-led while others are nationally driven. The EC report (CEC, 1991) states that “an integrated approach and a real partnership are critical to effective rural development policy”.

The Programme for Economic and Social Progress (Stationary Office, 1991) states that:

“in view of the importance of diversification of the rural economy and of increasing the income and employment opportunities in rural areas, the Government are committed to:

-implementing the Operational Programme for Rural Development over the 1991-1993 period; and

-establishing a national programme for integrated rural development which will draw upon the experience of the pilot programme and which will be provided with adequate resources from national and Community funds. Rural-based co-operatives will be considered among the local groups to implement the LEADER initiative.”

In addition, the Government are committed under Section VII of this programme, as part of an area-based response to long-term unemployment and the danger of long-term unemployment, to encourage small enterprises in manufacturing and service industry in areas with the most acute rural development needs. Teagasc is included in the agencies designated to provide services under this initiative.

However as O’Hara and Commins (1992) state:

“these initiatives, (however) taken either separately or as a whole cannot be said to amount to a coherent strategy for rural development.”

They go on to say that:

“integrated rural development and “bottom-up” development presuppose a structure of public administration which can respond to local needs and initiatives and be an effective mechanism for the co-ordination of action between agencies at sub-national levels.”

New institutional arrangements are therefore required to maximise the impact of these initiatives. Without such arrangements these programmes may in fact worsen rather than improve present regional disparities.

Once policies are identified it is necessary to provide support for their implementation. Harrison (Cuddy et al., 1991) stated that:

“the bottom line is whether in fact you can provide people with something that will tempt them to stay in rural areas. Because if there is not anybody there then there is no point in the effort”.

2.7 Women and Rural Development

While this topic is the subject of the remaining sections of the report, it must be stated that in reviewing the literature on rural development (both Irish and EC) not one reference was found to the role of women in rural development. This is despite the fact that many of the initiatives are in areas where traditionally women have played a leading role e.g. agri-tourism, recreation and leisure and alternative agriculture. None of the standard literature acknowledges the fact that the shift from an agricultural policy to a rural development policy is likely to have a major impact on the gender balance of work in rural areas and in many cases will necessitate the development of women’s skills for its successful planning, operation and implementation.

The remainder of this report will focus on actions required to maximise the vital contribution which women can and must make to successful rural development.

2.8 Conclusion

A key issue for the successful implementation of rural development policies is participation of rural communities in the policy making process. EC initiatives must be complemented by national, regional and local initiatives. Both “top down” and “bottom up” must maximise their impact and effectiveness. Rural development is now a core EC objective - motivated primarily by changes in agricultural policy. Whatever the motivation, the climate at present both nationally and at EC level is conducive to rural development. The opportunity which this presents for rural Ireland must be grasped.

The key role which rural areas make in the broader world is increasingly being recognised e.g. their role in territorial balance, maintenance of the social fabric and environmental protection. While agriculture will remain central to rural development it will be increasingly necessary to identify and develop opportunities outside the traditional agricultural sector.

A vibrant rural economy requires integrated programmes which take into account both economic and social issues and which are multi-sectoral covering agriculture, industry and services, and broader issues of regional development. At present, programmes both of EC and national origin are fragmented and transitory without clear priorities. They do not represent a coherent and focused strategy for rural development. Institutional structures have so far not been established to integrate existing programmes or develop new ones.

Almost half the population of the EC live in rural areas. Policies are therefore required to create self sustaining rural areas through the strengthening, modernisation and diversification of rural economies.

The key role which women can play in achieving the vision of vibrant rural areas within a broader economy has not been addressed by any of the literature reviewed when writing this chapter of the report.

CHAPTER 3

REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON RURAL WOMEN

3.1 Quantitative Data on Rural Women

In reviewing “Women in the World of Work”, the International Labour Office comments on the “under counting of female economic activity”, at a global level. The systematic under counting of women’s work is attributed to the fact that:

(a) subsistence activities are excluded from statistics in some countries;

(b) data on informal sector activities are not available or are difficult to collect;

(c) unpaid household work is not considered as “economic activity”;

(d) it is men who design, respond to and analyse surveys and censuses.

The net effect of these factors means that in many countries and cultures, the role of dependent housewife is assumed to apply and “much of women’s work is hidden because of denial or lack of recognition” (Nuss, 1989).

Similar criticisms have emerged in relation to statistics on the contribution of Irish women to the national economy, particularly by women in living in rural areas. Blackwell (1987) has commented on the lack of information on home working in Ireland and the “significant number of part-time workers in agriculture, many of them women (who are sometimes called ’relatives assisting’)…. There is likely to be an under-enumeration of the role which this work contributes to agricultural production”. It is not only women’s contribution within agriculture which is under counted. Blackwell mentions that an unknown number of women, especially married women, are likely not to be enumerated as part of the labour force in censuses and labour force surveys unless there is a positive answer under ’unemployed, having lost or given up previous job’ or ’actively looking for work again after voluntary interruption of working life for personal or domestic reasons’.

Blackwell also pointed to the sexism which underlies concepts such as ’dependants’ (for social welfare entitlements), ’Head of Household’ (in Census data collection) and the cursory manner in which ’home duties’ are dealt with in official statistics. Since work is defined as ’paid employment’, “unpaid domestic labour, virtually all produced by women, does not appear in statistics on work” (Blackwell, 1987). He goes on to state that “if the value of women’s work on home duties were valued at the average industrial earnings of women, this output would be valued at 20 per cent of (a higher) national output in 1985”. Blackwell identifies another form of sexism in the census of population which ascribes women, who are not in the measured labour force, to the socio-economic class of the person on whom they are deemed to be dependent (usually the male Head of Household). All of Blackwell’s criticisms have relevance to the interpretation of statistics on rural women in Chapter 4 of this report.

Byrne (1992) comments on how there is “a large proportion of the population whose opinions are rarely heard, whose labour is not valued and recognised, whose problems and needs are not responded to and whose existence is further marginalised through living on a low income in rural Ireland”.

She cites many ways in which women living in rural, rather than urban, areas are particularly disadvantaged: lack of access to resources and facilities through added distance, limited availability of transport, absence of information on support services and opportunities for paid employment. Byrne (1992) noted the lack of research findings and statistics on rural women which might provide insights into the “lives and living conditions of rural women who are poor”. Her paper presents a range of data on demographic characteristics of women in the planning regions (population, births, deaths, marriages) and labour force data also according to region. She reiterates Blackwell’s conclusions concerning the lack of adequate statistics, and states that rural women are “doubly excluded from the statistics on work as both their farm work and their housework are classified as “non-work”.

Fahey’s work (1990) questions the usefulness of Irish labour statistics as measures of women’s, particularly married women’s labour activities. By reviewing the concept of ’economic activity’, Fahey show how it includes the production of marketable goods and services along with non-market sector production of goods (e.g. agricultural produce) for subsistence. However, non-market sector services (usually housework) are excluded from the definition of ’economic activity’. Fahey shows that important changes in the market structure of household services have been omitted from current measurements. He cites the example of 250,000 female servants among the economically ’occupied’ population at the turn of the century, a category which dwindled to 85,000 in 1936 while still accounting for 25 per cent of women recorded as ’at work’ and 2.4 per cent of national income. Most of this work has since shifted into the non-market sphere of women’s unpaid work in the home.

Apart from Blackwell’s calculation, quoted above (Blackwell, 1987) there have been a number of efforts by to estimate the economic value of housework. A recent review of the state of existing research on these estimates (Chadeau, 1992) reports that studies from a number of industrialised countries have shown that at the minimum the economic value of housework is the equivalent of one fifth of GNP and may be worth as much as two thirds of GNP depending on methods of valuation.

Fahey noted that further problems arise from the definitions used in measuring female labour supply. He shows how the use of ’principle Economic Status’ (PES) to differentiate between the economically active and inactive has served to categorise women as holding the status of ’wives’ rather than their occupation or activity (often unpaid). The current census form provides no guidelines about interpreting status which has lead to an understatement of women’s work in “family farms, shops and other family businesses, part-time paid employment outside the family economy in manufacturing or service area, and unemployment”. The PES approach is used in Census and Labour Force Surveys. Drawing upon alternative data sources, Fahey showed that “secondary economic activity is extensive among farm wives and is under counted to a substantial degree in PES measures of the numbers of married women at work in farming”.

Utilising the Census and Labour Force Survey data, Callan and van Soest (1992) concluded that the status of relatives assisting on family farms “is indeed a numerically important one”. They also noted that farm wives who could command high wages were more likely to be found in employment and that as regards participation in the paid labour market “it is clear that the role of wages is central”.

Commenting in 1981 on ’Women in the Farm Labour Force’, Matthews highlighted “another form of bias” which occurs even when women’s contribution is counted. He was referring to the Agricultural Institute’s (now Teagasc) estimation of the labour input of a woman as counting for only .67 units of a man “even where the women is running the farm herself” (Matthews, 1981). He also noted that while 400 to 500 women took the Farm Home Management courses annually, very few enroled for general agricultural courses.

Gasson (1992) attempted to relate the available statistical data on women’s work in the agricultural sector with her own empirical data of women’s contribution on the family farm which involved responses from a sample of 509 Irish women. Her study reinforced the findings of Blackwell and Fahey in highlighting the often substantial role which women played in agricultural production as well as the diverse nature of their work inputs. Gasson found that in addition to the manual work performed by farmer’s wives, they contributed to office work, administration and decision-making. A higher proportion of Irish wives (59 per cent) were “personally responsible for some enterprise or activity on the farm” such as calf-rearing, running a flock of sheep or hiring casual labour. The average hours worked by Irish respondents was also higher amounting to 38 hours, compared with 28 hours in the UK sample. However, in Ireland “far fewer women are given any direct payment for their work…. Only 2 per cent are paid a regular wage, 11 per cent are credited with a share of the profits and 77 per cent get nothing”. Another distinctive feature of the Irish sample was their larger average family size of 4.1 children compared with 2.6 in the UK.

3.2 Qualitative Data on Rural Women

It is not only the absence of reliable statistical data on farming women which has drawn comment in Ireland. Shortall (1991) shows that there is a lack of qualitative as well as quantitative data on the lives of women living on Irish farms.

From her review of available literature she noted that Ireland follows the patrilineal system of land transfer, ensuring that in practice women hardly ever inherit farms. Allied to the man’s automatic right to inheritance Shortall linked the authority and social status which accompanies father/farmer in rural Ireland. Few authors, in her view, had addressed the corollary of this for women, in being virtually excluded from potential ownership. Qualitative studies, reviewed by Shortall repeated the tendency to undervalue women’s work, even when male and female roles were seen as ’complementary’. In recent studies, Shortall noted the adoption of urban values and a traditional ’housewife’ role by farm women as well as the emergence of dissatisfaction with their restrictive role, among women who were anxious for their daughters to avoid the same fate, via emigration.

Shortall (1991) shows that women were also excluded from key male domains in farming communities, fairs and marts, which provide both economic and social supports for farming communities. The closest that women came to forming their own community based organisational network was through the Irish Countrywomen’s Association (ICA). She states that “it could be argued that the increased involvement of women in ICA-prompted community affairs corroborates their unrecognised farm household/work role” in voluntary social support. This exclusion from economic activities also extended to the social sphere of access to public houses, which for men provide a vital meeting place where business is discussed.

Other forms of exclusion were noted by Shortall (1991) in the area of agricultural services which “follow a policy of addressing notification of farm walks, demonstrations and courses to husbands. The low female attendance then acts as a further deterrent confirming the idea for many women that they have no legitimate place at these activities”. This attitude is further reinforce by farming organisations and the farming media purveying the perception of “farming as a male industry”.

Beale (1986) sought to collect qualitative data on twenty-seven Irish women’s lives to illustrate a range of different experiences “in a way that statistics and information are unable to do”. Many of these women lived outside Dublin, in smaller towns and country areas, particularly in the west. Beale refers to the De Valera image of the countryside “with bright cosy homesteads” and contrasts this cheery image with the harsh lives of the older interviewees from rural backgrounds. Many came from large families and the women were reared in homes without basic amenities like running water and inside toilets. She noted that by the second half of the twentieth century, rural Ireland became characterised “by its low marriage rate, late age of marriage, large numbers of single people and a high emigration rate” all of which were to shape the lives of rural women who remained. Many women recalled the role of fathers, sometimes aided by matchmakers, in negotiating marriage agreements and the subsequent role of a new wife in developing a working relationship with her parents-in-law. According to Beale “the economic imperative of maintaining the family farm overrode other considerations”.

With such poor marriage prospects, it was not surprising that the ratio of men to women in rural areas became unbalanced, due to the out-migration of women, and this imbalance was even more pronounced among single men and women. For women the prospects of city life were more enticing that those of waiting for the local bachelor to inherit the family farm. Emigration provided another means of escape used by many thousands of Irish women from rural areas (and one which remains an important option in rural areas today).

3.3 Women in Farming

O’Hara (1987) makes comparisons of women’s involvement in farming in Ireland against patterns in other countries. She is critical of both the underestimation of women’s work effort in conventional statistics and the ’roles’ assigned to women in farming, which can vary throughout the life cycle, from ’Farm Housewife’, ’Working Farm Wife’ and ’Woman Farmer’. O’Hara refers to recent trends towards mechanisation, the need to keep farm accounts and pressure to take off-farm employment. These have affected the nature of women’s contribution to farming by substituting machinery for physical labour and by involving women in the administration and ancillary services involved in farming. Economic pressures mean that men and women have an incentive to supplement farm income through off-farm activities.

According to O’Hara the issues of concern to women on farms in Ireland are:

(i)most farm women have no legal or professional status unless they are farm owners;

(ii)their social welfare cover is inadequate compared to women in paid employment; and

(iii)farm women do not have sufficient access to vocational training.

Gasson (1992) showed that very few women own farms or have joint ownership rights. O’Hara calls for more information on women’s work input and legal recognition of the contribution of both spouses and family members. Byrne (1992) pointed to the inadequacies of the social welfare system where women are concerned. O’Hara states that Ireland lacks a national insurance scheme to cover women on farms for maternity benefits, retirement pensions, sickness and disability benefits along with replacement/relief schemes in the case of maternity or sickness. While some in-service vocational training is available to women, few can avail of it, according to O’Hara, due to the absence of relief schemes.

Like Shortall (1991), O’Hara also refers to women’s poor representation in farming organisations. “The agricultural establishment is almost totally male-dominated and women find great difficulty in penetrating a wall of traditional attitudes and male prejudices in order to raise issues which concern them”. O’Hara also draws upon other research to pinpoint the issues and needs arising for Irish farm women:

- invisibility, particularly in official statistics;

- the “three Rs”: recognition, respect and remuneration (which O’Hara points out can be difficult demands to articulate);

- women’s work role on the farm: to be redefined to extend to traditionally discounted areas identified by Gasson (1992) such as answering the telephone, purchasing feed, awaiting deliveries etc.;

- women’s role as a reserve labour force to help out at peak times and as providing smooth transfer of farm business and other skills to their children.

3.4 Issues for Rural Women

A succession of reports published by the Council for the Status of Women (CSW) sought to obtain the views of women throughout Ireland on what action should be taken to redress their needs. The first of these reported on National Women’s Forum held in November 1980 in Dublin and was attended by one thousand women. Workshops were organised along the key themes: Health, Education, Employment, Law, Rural Development, Women in Conflict Situations, Media and Communications/Networking. The Rural Development Workshops examined education and training for rural women, community involvement of rural women, women’s contribution to the quality of life in rural areas and the legal situation of women on farms and the status of rural women generally (National Women’s Forum, 1981).

The report noted that attendance at training courses was difficult for women with dependants, the programmes available were not broad enough in scope and that it was difficult for many women, due to distance and feeling isolated, to attend. The women also felt cut off from urban based services, particularly in health, lacked consumer advice and education and adequate representation on boards. Participants felt that their farm contribution was not recognised and farm organisations were male dominated as were major decisions by the Irish Farmers Association (IFA). Women referred to poor transport and amenities in rural areas and their own lack of confidence. The need for joint ownership of farms was stressed along with adequate social welfare benefits and legal advice. The report contained recommendations to overcome these problems, in the form of farm and home relief service, positive discrimination in favour of women on ACOT (now Teagasc) training programmes, minimal representation by women on the boards of government bodies (e.g. ACOT, ACC), national research into, and media coverage of, women’s contribution in family farm enterprises, improved transport and amenity provision, education for personal development and leadership, joint ownership/profit sharing in family farms, extension of social welfare provisions for women working on farms and/or carers of elderly or incapacitated family members and free legal advice centres (National Women’s Forum, 1981).

As an attempt to address the needs of the many women engaged specifically in ’home duties’ the CSW held a series of ’Get-Togethers’ in Dublin, Wexford, Dundalk, Cork, Athlone and Galway to give these women a voice (Barry, 1982). Although not confined to rural women, these groups did reiterate the acute problems experienced by many rural women. Many participants complained of their lack of identity and legal status, of isolation from other people, lack of support and recognition and financial dependency on their husbands. They also discussed health issues: maternity services (including distance from clinics and hospitals, and lack of after-care), hospital services, family planning, health benefits, emergency services, doctors and other issues. Child-care facilities were sought in the form of playgroups, creches in shopping areas, hospitals and other public places. Some women wanted uniformity in the social welfare system between men and women. Women also sought day-time adult education classes and training courses on business management and assertiveness (Barry, 1982).

By 1982 the focus had switched to dealing with the special conditions pertaining to rural women (Walsh, 1983), when the CSW held a further round of Get-Togethers. Many of the themes discussed at these gatherings had arisen in previous discussions, along with other preoccupations such as pre-marriage courses, the right for both spouses to have their own herd, the need for education in nutrition, better provision for the handicapped, more facilities for battered wives in rural areas, compulsory training and supervision for child minders and the need to address the problems of drugs and underage drinking.

In 1990 a conference was held in Co. Antrim, N. Ireland on ’Women in the Countryside’ (Rural Action Project, 1991) to provide a discussion forum for rural women’s organisations “on the ground” to present their own proposals for initiatives and to make links with funding and policy making bodies. Among the contributors Little stated that women’s employment in rural areas in the UK was characterised by low activity rates, high levels of part-time work, poor conditions at work and low wages, low skill levels and little choice of employment. She explained these patterns by referring to the following contributory factors: limited access to transport, poor child care facilities, lack of other public services such as health centres, retail outlets and leisure facilities. Little (Rural Action Project, 1991) also refers to the effects of conditioning by ’rural ideology’ which stresses the traditional roles of women as mothers and carers and to the lack of diversification in the jobs available to women in rural areas. Other problems associated with rural women emerged in other workshops indicating the lack of central government funding for community-based women’s initiatives and lack of access to advice and information on opportunities and funding as well as innovative ideas from abroad.

One of the Workshops reported on discussions of the likely effects of CAP reforms on rural women and emphasised the likelihood of greater marginalisation for such women. In reference to social measures being used to encourage women into the workforce in response to a shortage of workers, Northern Ireland was seen as being in danger of losing out on such measures since no similar shortage exists there (nor in the Republic of Ireland). Other workshops were held on ’Women in Agriculture’, ’Rural Women and Economic Development’ and ’Education and Training for Rural Women’. In agriculture the role of women in non-farming ancillary farm business work was noted as was the need to stimulate gainful activity through a ’bottom-up’ approach and to provide the basic services to enable women to participate full in their communities. Various solutions were considered in relation to economic development which lead to the conclusion that an integrated approach was necessary to encourage inwards investment, self-help and lobbying for action. (Rural Action Project, 1991).

Government training centres in Northern Ireland came in for criticism for not being geared to women’s needs in relation to scheduling of hours, lack of transport, the industrial bias on courses and lack of female managers/supervisors in most Training Centres, in addition to problems of hidden costs which could deter some women. The Workshop noted the requirements for developing education and training for rural women: funding and resources, designated women’s training centres, confidence-raising, better co-ordination of funding between departments and agencies, models of good practice and networking between women’s organisations (CSW, Second Report, 1993) (Rural Action Project, 1991)

The most recent document to deal with the situation of women in Ireland was the report of the Second Commission on the Status of Women (1993), which devoted a chapter to rural women. This study addressed the heterogeneity of these women representing farmers and farmers wives, industrial workers, employees in public and private services, self-employed women and relatives assisting on farms and in other family businesses. Rural women were examined as a discrete category for three reasons: their experience of isolation and restricted access to services arising from their residence in rural areas; specific difficulties associated with farming which adversely affect rural women living on farms: the growing emphasis on rural development.

The report provided some statistical information and then went on to highlight problems of access to transport, health services, education and training and child care. The specific problems of farm women were also addressed with emphasis placed on women’s involvement on the family farm; their lack of recognition, status and ownership rights; ineligibility for social insurance and the non-availability of farm relief services for women; limited access to agricultural education and training and participation in agricultural organisations.

The Commission made a series of recommendations, some with costings, for action which included improvements to infrastructure (rural transport, access to information, mobile health centres, education and training); (b) legal changes (property rights); (c) changes in eligibility requirements for social welfare benefits; (d) the need to include measures to assist women in all of the Structural Fund programmes and Community Initiatives and (e) the establishment and support of multi-functional centres for the development of community care and rural development.

3.5 Surveys of Rural Women

One of the few national surveys of women and employment in Ireland was undertaken by the ESRI in the early 1970s (Walsh and O’Toole, 1973). This involved interviews of 5,061 women of whom 1,138 lived on farms and 3,923 who were non-farm. The survey sought information on current and past work experience as well as an indication of willingness to return to paid employment. It confirmed the relatively low rates of female participation in the labour force, particularly for married women and showed that women in urban areas were more optimistic about job prospects “within easy reach” compared with 80 per cent of women in non-farm households in “open countryside” who answered negatively.

The study indicated that only 9 per cent of married women on farms were currently working, compared with 17 per cent not living on farms. The farm sample were also less likely to answer positively about their likelihood of returning to paid work. When asked what would be the most helpful policy for married women who are interested in working, non-working married women living on farms cited flexible hours, followed by better transport and equal pay as the most important. Among non-farm rural women not currently working the priorities were flexible hours, changes in tax law (now partially implemented), state-run day-care centres and equal pay (Walsh and O’Toole, 1973).

Smaller scale surveys have been conducted in specific communities such as South Armagh. Kilmurray and Bradley’s study (1991) sought to identify the perceived needs and attitudes of a sample of women (total of 296) in South Armagh. Out of that sample 117 worked outside the home almost exclusively in the service sector of which more than half were working in the public service sector and nearly one-third in part-time employment. Along with training and child care needs, mobility was a major issue for women in this rural area. Over three-quarters of households had either one or no car and over 40 per cent of the women did not hold a driving licence.

A Rural Women’s Research Project was initiated in University College Galway to undertake a survey of rural women in South West Mayo which involved interviewing a quota of 52 women (Byrne et al., 1993). Information was sought on the experiences of different categories of rural women in relation to employment, farming, transport, education/training, caring responsibilities and perceptions of local services. The survey highlighted the particular problems experienced by rural women who were caring for others, older women and single unemployed women. The authors reaffirmed the reality for these women of poor service provision, lack of employment opportunities and other services including access to education. Women’s isolation was reinforced by inadequate transport and child care facilities.

3.6 Conclusion

One of the major themes to occur repeatedly in the literature on rural women is the lack of status attached to their work, whether performed in the domestic sphere or on the family farm. This has resulted in the systematic under counting of women’s labour contribution in rural areas where the vast majority of women are designated as being engaged in ’home duties’. It also contributes to their portrayal as dependants who lack their own socio-economic status and social class.

Other literature has shown that rural women have also been excluded from inheritance of family farms and from male dominated decision making areas. Allied to the lack of employment opportunities, such practices have encouraged the out-migration of women from rural areas thereby contributing to rural decline.

Through a series of workshops and surveys in Ireland rural women have articulated their needs for -

- improved legal status: joint ownership and profit sharing in family farms;

- support services: health care, maternity services and family planning, transport, farm relief services;

- advice on legal rights and welfare entitlements;

- access to educational and training programmes;

- greater representation by women on public bodies;

- extension of social welfare provisions including carer’s allowances;

- more positive portrayal of women in the media;

- employment opportunities which allowed flexible working time.

CHAPTER 4

STATISTICS ON WOMEN IN RURAL AREAS

4.1 Statistical Sources for Rural Areas

In order to establish the scope and nature of problems facing rural women in Ireland, it is necessary to examine all available statistics. These come from a range of sources and vary in terms of their relative accuracy and when the data were gathered. The most up to date and complete picture is based on the ’Small Area Population Statistics’ (SAPS) from the Census of Population 1986. (The data collected in the 1991 Census of Population are not yet accessible even in unpublished form). The 1986 statistics are available in an unpublished form provided by the Central Statistics Office (CSO) in response to a specific request. Along with the Household Budget Survey, last conducted in 1987, the Census distinguishes between rural and urban households. The CSO defines Aggregated Rural Areas as areas outside towns of 1,500 or more people.

The Census data allow figures to be extracted for age, household composition/family size, dependent children, marital status, housing type, employment status, industrial sector and occupations, socio-economic status, social class and age when education ceased. They provide a useful demographic and socio-economic profile of the lives of rural women in 1986.

The CSO in their Household Budget Survey 1987 publish separate results for rural and urban households. Rural households are defined as being located outside the boundaries of cities and towns (including suburban areas). Within this population the CSO distinguishes rural farm households as those where the main occupation of the household is farming. The Household Budget Survey, unlike the SAPS which are based on a complete census of all persons resident in the state, it is based on a sample of households randomly representative of 7,705 in urban and rural areas. The main emphasis is on household expenditure and incomes but also includes data on eligibility for health service entitlements, and income from direct sources (employment/property) and state transfers.

There are additional data on weekly household expenditure and this can be analysed according to selected indicators such as family size, socio-economic group, employment status of household head.

As noted in Chapter Three, recent literature (Nuss, 1989, Fahey 1990) has pointed to the limitations of data sources, such as the Census of Population, in accurately reflecting the socio-economic contribution of women, particularly in farm households where women may be discouraged from disclosing the full nature of their work effort/time. Hence in using these sources we have to make allowances for these problems in interpreting women’s contribution.

For further information on farming activities which may more accurately reflect women’s role in agricultural households, the 1987 Farm Structure Survey (CSO, 1992) paints a more extensive picture. These results cannot be compared directly the Census of 1986 but can be compared with the EC Labour Force Survey conducted in the same year. One further source is from the survey conducted by Ruth Gasson (Gasson, 1992) which supports the view that official statistics seriously underestimate women’s contribution to agriculture.

These Surveys/Censuses give quantitative insights on women living in rural areas. This is only part of the picture and hence the statistics must be read alongside more qualitative data which is summarised in the review of literature in Chapter 3.

4.2 Demographic Statistics on Rural Women 1986

Census data for 1986 show that women are over represented among the urban population of Ireland and under represented in the rural populations. According to Table 4.1, the proportion of females in rural areas decreases during the life cycle up to retirement age, due to out-migration of women. At the onset of retirement age, the population ratio is reversed, with women out-numbering men, due partly to the longer life expectancy of women.

Further evidence of out-migration by women from rural to urban areas is found in the data on marital status. In rural areas, 50.8 per cent of men aged 15 and over were married, compared with 55.3 per cent of women. However, in urban areas men were more likely to be married, 53.9 per cent, than their rural counterparts. This was not the case amongst urban women aged 15 years and over, only 48.7 per cent of whom were married. While for single or married men there may be opportunities to participate in farming this would rarely apply to single women who would be forced to seek employment opportunities outside their rural areas. Consequently, women who remain in rural areas are more likely to be married.

Data on persons living alone, according to age category, bear out this pattern whereby women are more likely than men to end up living on their own in rural areas after retirement age. Although women represented less than 40 per cent of all persons living alone, they comprised nearly 54 per cent of those aged 65 years and over. Furthermore, nearly 69 per cent of rural women living alone, were aged 65 years or more, compared with only 39 per cent of rural men living alone. (Table 4.2)

The larger proportion of men living alone in the younger age groups suggests that they are single (male) farmers. There are relatively few single women engaged in farming in rural Ireland. This contributes to the greater outflow of women. Reasons for higher out-migration of women from rural areas (and hence the over-representation of men) are a complex mix of push and/or pull factors (i.e. lack of incentives to stay and the attractions elsewhere) many of which are identified in the literature (See Chapter 3). The tradition of land inheritance through sons or other male relatives, rather than daughters or other female relatives, is one reason why fewer women remain on farms in rural areas. Women are also more likely to take service jobs, better suited to their educational attainment. Such jobs may only be available to them in urban areas within or outside Ireland.

A major difference between rural and urban households is in the relative importance of flats/bedsits in urban areas (Table 4.3). Less than 6 per cent of such households were in rural areas, hence they are a predominantly urban household arrangement. In contrast, private households in caravans, mobile homes and other temporary dwellings were much more common in rural areas where eighty-seven per cent of all temporary dwellings are found.

Table 4.4 illustrates that nearly one-fifth of rural households were occupied by a lone woman or man. This is virtually the same proportion as in non-rural areas. As has been shown above, a higher percentage of women than men living alone were aged over 65 years. In addition, there were 42,834 persons living in ’two person’ households in which both members were 65 years of age and over. These figures have obvious implications for the provision of services in rural areas (health, transport, social services, etc. for the elderly).

The classic ’nuclear family’ of two parents and children comprises only 42 per cent of all rural households. One-parent households accounted for 8 per cent of all households in rural areas and women were more likely to head these (Table 4.4). Such arrangements may be temporary (due to parent working away from home or who is in hospital) or permanent (due to death of spouse, desertion, separation or divorce).

“Other’ households comprised a considerable range of family units with other persons (e.g. elderly relatives) living along with nuclear families as well as two or three family units and persons living in the same household who were unrelated.

Table 4.5 shows how many of the 417,793 rural women aged 15 to 64 years (i.e. child rearing ages) had dependent children under 15 years within the family unit. The figure is 177,000 or 42 per cent. This is an important indicator of the level of child dependency which may restrict the options of rural-based women to work outside the home. This figure does not include women responsible for other dependants (e.g. elderly or disabled adults).

For census purposes, only 78,511 or 18.5 per cent of households had female heads. Of these, one-fifth of female heads were single and a further two-thirds of the rural women were widowed or separated. More significantly, less than 4 per cent of all rural married women considered themselves to be head of household.

4.3 Employment of Rural Women

As can be seen in Table 4.6 among men living in rural areas the key employment status was ’at work’, followed by retirement, unemployment, studying and inability to work. This was not the case for women. While nearly 62 per cent of rural men aged 15 years and over were classified as being ’at work’, this applied to only 23 per cent of all rural women. In fact the proportion of men ’at work’ was very similar to the proportion of women engaged in ’home duties’ (59 per cent). Among married, widowed or separated women the proportion of women ’at work’ was only 18 per cent compared with 79 per cent whose work is at ’home duties’. While nearly 14 per cent of men were officially classified as ’retired’ this was not matched among women only 3 per cent of whom had ’retired’ since they would continue to be regarded as ’housewives’ well beyond the statutory retirement age.

Less than 3 per cent of rural women were ’unemployed’ (that is seeking work after a period in employment) while a further one per cent were seeking their first job. In contrast 11 per cent of men were ’unemployed’ with a further 2 per cent seeking their first job. A larger percentage of rural women were ’students’, 10 per cent compared with 8 per cent of men in rural areas.

Age, as well as marital status and the presence of dependent children, plays an important role in determining whether women engage in employment outside the home. The activity rate for women of 15 to 24 years was 36 per cent but this drops to 31 per cent for women aged 25 to 44 years. Whilst the percentage of women engaged in ’home duties’ was the same for women aged 44-65 and over 65 years at 78 per cent, it was only 65 per cent for women aged 25 to 44 years. This may reflect a tendency for younger women to be more attached to the labour force even at the onset of child rearing, a trend which was noted nationally by Blackwell (1989).

When analysing women’s labour market contribution it is also important to remember that statistics in the Census of Population (which does not collect data on part-time employment nor differentiate between full and part-time jobs) and Labour Force Surveys may underestimate the true contribution of women to the economy (as noted in Section 3.1). Not only is women’s labour input in the form of ’home duties’ not counted in GNP, it is not deemed ’gainfully occupied’ whereas the status of ’unemployed’ or ’seeking first job’ is deemed ’gainfully occupied’. There may also be complex reasons why women’s paid as well as unpaid work contribution outside the formal economy is uncounted or under-counted. For instance, such activities might be liable for tax and social welfare contributions or might affect a family entitlement to medical care, scholarships and other grants. Hence ’heads of household’, most of whom are male, could deliberately or otherwise exclude the work performed by women in rural areas (e.g. paid or unpaid child care/minding, domestic cleaning, farm assistance) all of which would be considered ’gainful employment’ if performed in the formal economy. This probable under-estimation should be borne in mind examining the data which follow on employment and occupations.

According to Table 4.8 the key employment sectors for rural women were: ’professional services’ (30 per cent), ’commerce’ (20 per cent) and ’manufacturing’ (19 per cent). Less than 10 per cent of rural women were officially engaged in the agricultural sector while 5 per cent and 3 per cent were employed in ’public administration’ and ’transport’ respectively. For men the major employment sector in rural areas was ’agriculture’ (43 per cent) followed by ’manufacturing’ (16 per cent), ’commerce ’(12 per cent) and ’construction’ (10 per cent).

Table 4.9 below shows the difference between men and women in terms of employment status. Taking the rural labour force as a whole, over 43 per cent of working men were self-employed, over three-quarters of whom were running the family farm. Under 11 per cent of working women were ’self-employed’, less than half of them in running the family farm. A higher percentage of women were likely to be ’employed’: 83 per cent of women as compared with 51 per cent of men. Approximately 6 per cent of men and women were engaged as ’relatives assisting’, 86 per cent of whom were engaged in agriculture.

As Table 4.10 shows, the major occupations for rural women, outside farming were as clerical workers, as clerks and typists (27 per cent), followed closely by professional and technical workers, such as nurses, teachers, nuns, social workers and other professions (25 per cent). Also important were service occupations which cover jobs providing personal services such as maids/cleaners, waitresses, hairdressers, hospital orderlies, cooks, proprietors/mangers, laundry workers and housekeepers (16 per cent). A similar proportion of rural women were engaged in commercial occupations such as shop assistants in retail outlets and as proprietors/managers (15 per cent). The non-service occupation of producer/maker/repairer accounted for only 14 per cent of rural women’s occupations. Outside agriculture the major occupations held by men in rural areas were as producer/maker/repairer (31 per cent), professional and technical (16 per cent), commerce (15 per cent) and clerical work (12 per cent).

Rural women, as in other areas, tend to be concentrated into a smaller number of occupations and are under-represented in manufacturing, compared with men.

4.4 Educational Attainment

Apart from the larger number and percentage of girls (10 per cent) than boys (8 per cent) still at school, girls were also more likely to remain at school for longer than boys, up to the age of 20 years. It is only among the population who have remained in education after 21 years that this pattern is altered with marginally more men remaining in education, 4.2 per cent compared with 3.8 per cent of women. This suggests that, at least in rural areas, the female population have spent longer in the education system than their male counterparts. However, at third level it is likely that a slightly higher percentage of boys continued into further education.

4.5 Farm Incomes

As over one third of all employment in rural areas is in farming, and a high proportion of the remainder dependent on it, trends in farm incomes are a key indicator of rural prosperity. The aggregate levels of income from farming is estimated annually by the CSO. Estimates of income by type of enterprise, and the structure of income is estimated by the National Farm Survey (Table 4.12). The survey showed a consistent pattern of low incomes from farming for a high proportion of farmers, sixty per cent of whom had family farm incomes below £5,000 per farm. The percentage of farms with an income above £15,000 declined from 15.9 per cent to 12.3 per cent. This situation is accounted for by the high proportion of small farms which concentrate on low profit cattle production. Most of these farms have little or no potential to generate acceptable incomes from commercial farming activities and will continue to rely on off-farm activities, if available.

4.6 Women and Farming

Data on the role of women in farming can be derived from a number of sources including the Census of Population, the Farm Structure Survey and the Labour Force Surveys. As Table 4.8 notes, the 1986 Census enumerated 11,400 women as being engaged in farming which is about 10 per cent of the total number of rural women in employment and 8 per cent of the total number engaged in agriculture. About 6,000 of these are farmers in their own right and the remainder are “relatives assisting”. Table 4.13 shows the distribution of women as a function of farm size. The Labour Force Survey 1991 shows that there were 11,700 women engaged in agriculture, a figure which, in conjunction with the 1986 Census indicates little change in the number of women engaged in agriculture in recent years.

A further significant item of statistical information on the role of women in agriculture comes in the form of hours worked. The Labour Force Survey, 1991 shows the volume of work by men and women in agriculture. (Table 4.14). Almost all of the women recorded in this Survey as being engaged in agriculture are in a full time or virtually full time capacity. Of those who gave an estimate of the weekly hours worked, 86 per cent estimated that they worked 30 hours or more.

But because the Farm Structure Survey 1987 has extensive information on part time working it gives a more comprehensive picture of the contribution of women to Irish agriculture than either the Labour Force Survey or the Census. It showed that there were 215,000 farm holdings of which 24,600 were in women’s hands. In the aggregate, these holders worked the equivalent of 11,000 years (females) and 137,000 years (males), thus indicating extensive part time working by holders. The Farm Structure Survey also gives information on the number of persons, other than holders, who work on farms. These include spouses, other family members and non-family employees. A summary of the data are shown in Table 4.16 from which it can be seen that of the 399,000 persons who have at least some involvement in agriculture 109,000, or 27 per cent, are women. Relative to other sectors of the economy, agriculture, is, therefore, an industry with a relatively large component of women workers.

Conclusion

This Section has dealt with the demographic and employment situation of women in rural areas, given the limitations associated with the data. It illustrates the heterogeneity of the population under study. Women represent a smaller proportion of the under 65 years rural population. After retirement, women are more likely than men to be living alone. The nuclear family, with two parents and children at home, accounted for less than half of rural households. Women were four times more likely than men to be single parents. Over forty per cent of rural women aged 15 to 64 years had dependent children living at home.

The most common economic status of rural women is engaged in ’home duties’, a category which accounted for nearly 80 per cent of married, widowed or separated women. Less than one-quarter of rural women were registered as ’at work’. These data, like the Labour Force Surveys, under-estimate the economic contribution of rural women, not only within the home, but in unpaid work performed on the family farm or other family business.

Employed rural women tended to be concentrated in professional services, commerce and manufacturing, followed by ’other’ industry and agriculture. Only just over 10 per cent of women engaged in agriculture were ’self-employed’ compared with more than 50 per cent of men.

The occupations held by rural women employed outside agriculture were concentrated into clerical, professional/technical, service, commercial and producers. Rural women were much less likely than their male counterparts to hold manufacturing jobs.

The data on socio-economic group and class are not particularly useful, since they are based on employment status or, after retirement or during unemployment, on previous occupation. (See Appendix Tables B.2 to B.4). Hence, the majority of rural women are allocated to the socio-economic group and class of their husband, on whom they are assumed to be dependent regardless of their previous occupation.

CHAPTER 5

STATE INTERVENTIONS RELEVANT TO RURAL WOMEN

Virtually the whole range of state activity has at least some impact on rural Ireland and therefore on women. In this section a number of interventions are examined which are, or could be of relevance to rural women. These include activities and agencies which have directly targeted rural women or which because of the scope and nature of their activities seem of particular importance to women.

Table 5.1 Summarises the key state interventions of relevance to rural women.

PROGRAMMES SPECIFICALLY FOR WOMEN

5.1 NOW Operational Programme for Ireland

New Opportunities for Women (NOW) is a Community Initiative ¹ aimed at promoting equal opportunities for women in the field of employment and vocational training. Its objective is stated as:

“to encourage transnational schemes to help women take full advantage, on equal terms with men, of the positive effects expected from economic growth and technological development”.

Between 1990-93 ECU120 million ² has been allocated under NOW from the European Social Fund (ESF) and the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) throughout the Community with priority being given to transnational measures covering Objective 1 regions i.e. the most disadvantaged parts of the EC including the whole of Ireland. The allocation to Ireland for 1992 was £1.8 million which is reduced slightly to £1.7 million in 1993.

Eligible measures include schemes to encourage the setting up of small businesses and cooperatives such as:

training;

start up and recruitment aid;

access aid;

schemes to provide guidance and support for women returning to work.

A special feature of the programme is the development of child care facilities and technical assistance.

An important element of NOW’s work is the manner in which statutory bodies and voluntary organisations have the opportunity to work together to achieve common objectives. A National Co-Ordinator has been appointed under the auspices of the Council for the Status of Women for Ireland. The NOW initiative is linking in with IRIS, child care and LEI Networks.

One of the key elements under Sub Programme 1 of the NOW Programme is “Rural Development”. The objective of this measure is to improve the status of women in rural communities, through the provision of vocational training and the establishment of rural based enterprises. The background material on the Irish NOW programme refers to the fact that, at the time, women represented only 7 per cent of trainees on agricultural and rural development courses. It states that:

“the shift in emphasis from conventional agriculture towards integrated rural development has profound implications for rural communities in Ireland. The provision of training opportunities will assist women and enhance their skills so that they can positively participate in that transition.”

NOW projects aim to channel the energies of women in rural areas by encouraging them to exploit these new developments in a new and innovatory manner and thereby fully contribute to community development.

As Table 5.2 shows, rural development measures in Ireland under the NOW programme have been costed at £446,000 in 1992 and about the same in 1993, despite the slight fall in the overall NOW budget. Rural development will therefore account for 26 per cent of the NOW budget in the current year. Eighteen NOW projects have so far been approved for Ireland - all with transnational funding. Of these the following are exclusively or partly rural in focus:

Aontas: This project is aimed at providing information advice and training services to local women’s groups in disadvantaged or remote communities (partly rural);

CERT: Training is being provided to help women to undertake agri-tourist activities which will supplement income in rural areas;

Muintearas Na hOilean: Two projects in Gaeltacht areas involving training in child care and enterprise skills respectively for women;

Teagasc: Teagasc will undertake two projects. One of these is aimed at increasing the number of women entering agriculture. The other seeks to encourage women to participate fully in the development of their communities through income generating activities;

An T-Inneall Gas: This programme is developing an education and training course in the Gaeltacht region in vegan and organic farming and the establishment of a community cooperative for organic food production;

Udaras na Gaeltachta: This seeks to create a women’s enterprise network in the audio-visual industry;

Connaught Rural Women’s Group: Development of enterprise opportunities for women in the East Galway/Roscommon/Mayo Region;

FAS: A national programme for the development of equality guidance and advisory services for women entering or re-entering the workforce (partly rural).

Thus eight of the eighteen projects so far approved under NOW are focused principally on rural areas while another two embrace rural as well as urban areas.

The NOW programme is currently moving into an operational phase in Ireland. It is therefore too early to estimate its effectiveness. The fact that it has a clearly articulated rural theme means that it is one of the only funding mechanisms that focuses on women in rural Ireland. Further research is required at a later stage to examine how the NOW initiative will interlink with other rural measures and with mainline programmes of activity such as LEADER and FAS.

5.2 Local Employment Initiatives (LEI)

The Local Employment Initiative (LEIs) for Women’s Programmes was established in 1985 as an EC Community Initiative. It provides support for women setting up businesses, co-operatives or other employment-creating ventures. Support is provided in the form of small start-up grants to businesses and technical advice and information on the creation and planning of LEIs.

The programme has enjoyed considerable success in the Community and the amount available for funding has grown from ECU400,000 in 1986 to ECU1 million in 1990. In this period funding was given to a total of 789 women’s LEIs throughout the member states. The LEI continues under the Third Medium Term Community Action Programme 1991-95 for Equal Opportunities with at least ECU1.5 million being allocated each year.

Grants are paid to projects at the rate of ECU1,500 per job with a minimum of two jobs and a maximum of five (or their part-time equivalents). Any business or cooperative where the management positions and the majority of jobs are held by women is eligible. Priority is given to projects which are being created for marginalised groups such as women returning to the labour market, single parents, and the long term unemployed.

Evaluation of the Irish programme is the responsibility of Brand Consultants. In the period 1987-90, 29 enterprises were grant-aided in Ireland of which 24 were outside Dublin. Likewise, in the period 1990 to October 1992, 53 of the 88 applications received were from outside Dublin. The projects for which applications were made were from industry, services and agriculture sectors.

Ten of the LEI grant-aided projects undertaken in 1987-90 were surveyed by Brand Consultants, of which 4 were rural-based. These ten enterprises had increased employment from 49 to 77 over the period. The women respondents indicated that the main difficulties for women setting up their own business in Ireland were:

-inadequate finance/bank support

-lack of confidence

-restrictions imposed by the need to care for children or the cost of doing so.

The respondents recommended a range of other forms of support for women entrepreneurs including:

-finance

-training grants for management, book-keeping and market development

-greater links across the EC

-information service and “freefone” for EC support and guidance

-more support for service industry

-tax deductible child-minding

-low interest loans

-mentor/advisory body.

The respondents also indicated that the administration of grants should be speeded up and the period of eligibility for grants should be extended.

Brand Consultants recommended that there should be:

on-going commitment to, and funding for, LEIs;

awareness raising;

pre-training courses;

second stage financing, especially for service companies which fall outside the IDA, bank and other institutional aiding.

The LEIs represent a valuable source of funding for women entrepreneurs. Research on the scheme indicates that it requires complementary support for training and development of women managers and the availability of better information. Second stage funding, particularly for service enterprises is also required. The transnational network of LEI brings the benefits of experience from a range of countries and situations. However, the low level of funding of LEI limits the impact which it can make on the large number of women throughout the Community who are interested in setting up their own businesses. To maximise its impact there is a need to co-ordinate it with the work of the NOW programme and to create synergy between the two programmes based on LEI’s experience and NOW’s structural and financial strength.

5.3 Department of Social Welfare Grants for Locally Based Women’s Groups

This scheme was introduced in 1990 and a total of £500,000 was provided to support the work of various organisations working with women in the field of community and personal development. Of this total, £150,000 was allocated to the Rape Crisis Centre and the remainder was distributed to locally based women’s groups. The scheme focused on disadvantaged areas which provide programmes of self-help and personal development aimed at encouraging the active participation of women working in the home.

The operation of the scheme in 1990 was the subject of an evaluation by the Combat Poverty Agency (CPA). This indicated that over 300 women’s groups had applied for nearly £2 million under the scheme, of which 180 were allocated grants, totalling £325,000 from which 6,000 women were directly involved. As Mulvey (1991) states, the high level of applications:

“is a telling indication both of the great need among groups for funding and of the demand which exists at local level for the work which these groups are doing.”

The majority of the groups funded were community-based organisations and grants ranged from £160 to £10,000 with the majority receiving between £500 and £2,000.

Mulvey concluded that:

“rural groups, particularly those in the North Western and Midland regions of the country and the groups working with young and with elderly women were under-represented among the groups who were supported.”

Such women were also found to be under-represented among the groups which applied for funding. Mulvey concluded that groups such as rural women should require special targeting in the future.

Only 14 (8 per cent) of the funded groups were involved in work which trained women for active participation in the development of their own communities. However, this category received 20 per cent of the money allocated including 4 groups which were funded to undertake wide-ranging community development programmes. These received £10,000 each, including the ICA which set up a national training consultancy service.

Many of the groups funded spent a significant proportion of their grant on crêche facilities. Mulvey found that the groups were particularly pleased with the following aspects of the scheme:

-the provision of funding specifically for work with women;

-the targeting of community based groups in disadvantaged areas;

-the payment of money directly to grassroots groups;

-the payment of the grants in advance of the activity or project being undertaken.

Mulvey found the following difficulties were experienced by the groups:

-the once-off nature of the scheme;

-the requirement that the money be spent before 31 December;

-the application form used and the requirement that estimates be submitted;

-the delay in receiving payments due mainly to difficulties in acquiring a tax number;

-the lack of back-up support and advice.

The groups emphasised their need for secure, adequate and flexible funding.

Mulvey concluded that community based groups can be remarkably successful in meeting needs for social contact, information, support and advice. They can also provide improved access to services and resources. They can combat isolation. Such funding can also create structures for women which gives them access to decisions which shape their lives and:

“they can provide experience, knowledge and insights useful to policy makers in developing policies and services to people living on low incomes.” (Mulvey 1991).

Mulvey recommends that a permanent and coherent structure of funding be established for women. Without such structures she states that:

“community based women’s groups are forced to pour huge amounts of time, energy and talent into the never-ending search for funds into the struggle for survival rather than the challenge of development.”

Lack of resources also “…stunts the development of new and innovative approaches prevents creative planning for the future and frustrates the ability of groups such as these to facilitate real change for the women and the communities with whom they work.”

A permanent funding structure “would provide an adequate on-going and flexible source of funds from which groups would draw depending on their stage of development, both small once-off grants for short term activities or projects, and long term financial support for workers’ salaries and for running costs.” Mulvey, (1991)

The then Minister for Social Welfare, Mr. Michael Woods, TD speaking at a ’get together’ for the group involved in January 1991, acknowledged that the scheme had “enormous potential” but was unable to make a commitment to on-going funding which, he said, “would have to be considered in the context of the resources available in the coming budget”.

In the event, both the 1991 and 1992 budgets allocated a further £500,000 to this grant scheme and in 1993 this was raised to £600,000. A total of 450 groups applied for grants out of which 349 groups were awarded funds ranging from £500 to £26,000. About 25 per cent received grants of £500 or less. Grant allocation continued to favour urban groups. Details of the 1992 and 1993 allocations are not yet available.

Research on the Department of Social Welfare scheme indicates that it provides a vitally important first step for community-based women’s groups. Interest in the scheme from women’s groups indicate the great need for such funding. To date rural groups are under-represented. To redress this imbalance, Mulvey recommends that they should be specifically targeted.

To maximise the effectiveness of this funding requires the establishment of a permanent and coherent funding structure rather than depending on an annual allocation in the budget. It is also necessary to structure the funding to allow for the different stages of development of women’s groups from, short term once activities to longer term financial support for established groups.

5.4 Department of Health Schemes

The Department of Health is an important source of funding for women’s groups both from the Department’s own budget and from the National Lottery. Identifying the flow of resources to women’s groups is not straightforward since many of the voluntary and other bodies assisted provide for the needs of men as well as women (e.g. Catholic Marriage Advisory Council). In addition, the fact that much of the Department’s funds are distributed through a decentralised Health Board structure makes assembly of the relevant data more difficult. Some details of the distribution of funds in 1990 and 1991 are shown in Appendix C together with amounts from the National Lottery distributed directly by the Department of Health. In addition to these sums, the Department provides £510,000 for Child Care services routed through both public and voluntary bodies. The bulk of these disbursements go to child care centres and centres for mothers and their children.

RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

5.5 Operational Programme for Rural Development

The Operational Programme for Ireland (OPI) is the financial framework for the activities funded by the EC Structural Funds, the Government and the private sector for the period 1989-93. Of the total of ECU8.4 billion included in the OPI, ECU2.3 billion is allocated to Priority 1 activities which includes agriculture, forestry, fishing and tourism. Within Priority 1 are an enormous range of projects which have an impact on some aspect or other of rural Ireland and so, directly or indirectly, affect the lives of rural women. The bulk of these schemes, in financial terms at least, are funded by the European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund (EAGGF) and these provide the principal means of agricultural income support.

However, while acknowledging the general importance of these schemes, the ones which are of particular interest to this study are those aimed at rural development through diversification of agriculture and the creation of non-agricultural economic activities in rural areas. These development measures are primarily, though not exclusively, organised within the Operational Programme for Rural Development (OPRD) for which a total of ECU161 million is allocated for 1989-93.

The OPRD comprises five Sub Programmes dealing with:

1.Diversification of the Rural Economy;

2.Small and Community Enterprise;

3.Rural Infrastructures;

4.Research and Development and Marketing in the Food Industry;

5.Human Resources.

Of these, Sub Programmes 1 2, and 3 are of most relevance to this study. Sub Programme 1 of the OPRD is aimed at promoting the diversification of the rural economy by encouraging farmers to enter the production of commodities outside the CAP regime including enterprises such as deer farming, horticulture, agri-tourism, forestry and rural farm services. Teagasc is assigned the task of promoting this diversification through publicity, information, training and demonstration while Bord Failte and Shannon Development will also have roles in the agri-tourism area. Approximately Ir£25 million has been allocated from all sources for this Sub Programme.

Small and Community Enterprise is devoted to the promotion of small, community-type enterprise through a scheme of grants for the acquisition of plant and equipment and technical assistance. A total of £7.6 million has been set aside for funding these grants. These schemes are operated by the County Development Teams and by Shannon Development in its area of responsibility in the mid west.

The emphasis in the Human Resources Sub Programme is on training for diversification. The training will be carried out by Teagasc and it could have an important role in drawing women into both conventional and non-CAP agricultural activities. (See Section 5.7 below).

In addition to assistance provided under the OPRD, the main programmes of the European Agriculture and Guidance Fund (EAGGF) and the Department of Agriculture and Food, it should be noted that schemes of assistance for diversification from agriculture into forestry and environmentally friendly agriculture are also funded from the EAGGF. The Department’s local delivery of these services is carried out through the Farm Development Service which operates through a network of offices throughout the country and comprises about 250 officers.

Women can play a significant role in many of the agricultural diversification measures listed above, particularly where these are non-farm activities. However, none of the schemes are at present particularly oriented towards women and the organisation and delivery of the services related to these schemes is substantially the same as that for the rest of agriculture. Primarily because of the absence of this orientation in the structure and delivery of the schemes there is no systematic information on the participation by women.

5.6 LEADER

LEADER is a Community Initiatives with participation by the Government and involving private funding. The purpose of the LEADER scheme is to encourage local rural communities to foster development in their own areas by promoting and helping to finance training, small scale industry, the development and marketing of local produce, rural tourism, and other locally based activities. A total of 16 such schemes have been set up in Ireland and they are expected to complete their work by the middle of 1994 by which time, it is hoped, many of the activities initiated by LEADER will have become self-sustaining. Total expenditure on the schemes is budgeted at £35 million of which the EC will contribute £21 million and the Government £14 million.

Since most of the entities involved in these schemes are responsible for their own activities, and because of the emphasis placed on the “bottom up” approach, there is no central register of activities, still less any form of centralised direction. Nor is there anything which requires the groups involved to give particular attention to the needs of women as distinct from any other rural group. For all of these reasons there is no readily accessible body of information available on the extent to which these schemes actually assist women in rural areas.

However, it has been found by some LEADER groups that there is a demand amongst rural women to enter or re-enter the workforce in one capacity or another. A leading example of the response to this is Rural Resource Development, the Shannon-based LEADER project. This has developed a programme specifically aimed at rural women and from an initial base in East Clare the programme has spread throughout the County. The programme is aimed at personal development of rural women. For those who want to enter the work place which is an important first step for those wishing to enter the workplace. The next step should be general or specific training and education courses organised by FAS.

5.7 TEAGASC PROGRAMMES

Teagasc is the agency responsible for agricultural research, training and advice for farmers. It has its own Board of Directors and operates through about 100 local centres throughout the country. The bulk of Teagasc’s training is provided through its “Young Entrant Training Programme” which comprise one to three year courses, and the “Adult Farmer” programme which is delivered through 20 hour modules with most participants taking one of these per annum. Figures for the participation of women on these programmes are shown in Table 5.3.

One acknowledged problem for women participating in Teagasc courses is in the Farm Apprenticeship Schemes where it is sometimes difficult to get master farmers to accept female trainees.³ Teagasc offers a special sum to subsidise wages paid by master farmers to female trainees to get around this.

As noted above, Teagasc is participating in the NOW programme through a scheme aimed at training rural women to participate in income generating activities. There will be 120 women involved and training will include work experience and study, including placement in other EC countries.

Approximately 10 per cent of the advisory staff of Teagasc are female.

OTHER RELEVANT PROGRAMMES

5.8 FAS PROGRAMMES

As the national training and employment authority, FAS has a major complementary role across virtually the whole range of economic policies. The agency has committed itself to a Positive Action Programme aimed at “…increasing and broadening the range of job opportunities for women in the labour market.” More specifically, the Programme aims at “…the breaking down of traditional patterns of occupational segregation…” and aims to “…promote participation of women at all levels…including technical and managerial occupations…” (FAS, 1990)

The programme comprises a wide range of actions including adaptation of advertising and publicity and direct efforts to recruit women trainees through visits to schools and participation in career exhibitions and trade fairs. FAS operating practices have also been adapted to ensure equality of opportunity. Places on courses traditionally regarded as “male preserves”, were specifically reserved for women trainees and a number of courses exclusively for women have been provided.

Partly as a result of this policy the number of women participating in FAS programmes has increased enormously. In 1971, 5 per cent of FAS trainees were women and by 1990 this had risen to over 41 per cent. Women also represent 25 per cent of those engaged on the FAS employment programmes.

While all FAS statistics on trainees and participants are collected on a gender basis, there is no further breakdown available on the number of women who are from rural backgrounds. The decentralised structure which is now in place in FAS also makes it difficult to get information on this aspect of its programmes. However, the external training function of FAS provides a range of courses outside the major towns which have a large participation by women. These include courses on enterprise, return to work, co-operative management and the “Community Response” programme.

5.9 Council for Education Recruitment and Training (CERT)

CERT is the agency responsible for training in the tourism industry. Each year it provides training for about 10,000 persons including entrants to the industry and those already within it. Tourism is an industry in which there have been few of the traditional barriers to the entry of women than have been found or are still found in most other industries. Consequently women are relatively strongly represented in CERT and amongst its trainees. The participation of women varies amongst the different courses, but even those in which men have tended to be in the majority (e.g. chef courses), have witnessed an increase in women’s participation in recent years. In general about half of CERT’s trainees are women. CERT does not collect statistics on a rural/urban basis, but tourism is widely dispersed throughout the country and CERT has training centres and organises courses in a number of provincial locations. It can be presumed therefore, that CERT courses are, in principle at least, accessible by rural women, though this is subject to their being able to surmount barriers to attendance (transport, childcare, and other domestic commitments). Finally, it should be noted that women constitute 60 per cent of the staff of CERT although, on the other hand, the number of women council members (6 our of 23) is relatively small.

5.10 Area Based Response to Long Term Unemployment

Under the terms of the Programme for Economic and Social Progress (PESP) between the Government and the social partners in 1991, it was agreed that twelve “partnership” companies would be established in areas of high unemployment with the objective of integrating various initiatives operating in their areas under training, work scheme initiatives and enterprise creation and employment. These companies would be formed from national, local and community interests in each locality. Four of these twelve companies are in rural areas: North Mayo, South West Wexford, West Waterford and South West Kerry.

It was initially planned to extend these partnership companies nationwide by 1994. However, it now seems likely that they will be subsumed in the proposed County Enterprise Partnership Boards. An evaluation of the PESPs is due for publication soon. However, it is understood that there will be little emphasis on its gender impact.

While the original PESP agreement did not provide funding for additional activity (their function was seen primarily to co-ordinate existing activities within their areas) an EC global grant for local economic development was allocated to the PESPs in late 1992. This amounted to £8 million of which £350,000 was allocated to each PESP. So far, £100,000 has been drawn down by each PESP company.

This money is to be used to test new programmes and to fund new enterprises. So far no specific programmes for women have been agreed. However some programmes are taking into account the needs of women (i.e. for part-time courses) and many of the education and community development-type programmes are likely to include a high proportion of women.

Representation of women on the Boards of the partnership companies is low. It was originally intended by the Government that women should represent 40 per cent of the Boards. However, the nominating bodies failed to provide a sufficient number of women nominees, no doubt reflecting the fact that the nominating bodies - farming, business and union organisations - are extremely male dominated. The average number of women on the twelve Boards is 4. Some boards, have no women representatives at all.

In summary, the PESP companies have been up and running for over a year and in the last six months have received a significant sum of money from the EC. An evaluation of their activities is under way. Indications are that while women are well represented on some programmes, they have failed to gain access to the decision making echelons of the companies. The PESPs are now likely to be succeeded by the County Enterprise Partnership Boards. These appear unlikely to change the status quo in relation to empowering women to take control over the decisions that affect them.

5.11 Combat Poverty Agency

One of the four general functions of the Combat Poverty Agency (CPA) is “the initiation of measures aimed at overcoming poverty in the state and the evaluation of such measures.”

Projects funded and/or administered by CPA include:

EC Poverty 3 Programme;

Department of Social Welfare Community Development Programme;

Supporting women’s networks.

The Forum Project in Letterfrack, Connemara is one of the two Irish model action projects in the EC Poverty 3 programme. In 1991, the CPA provided £168,000 to this project.

The decision to fund large-scale model projects under Poverty 3 was based on experience gained in earlier programmes which indicated the need for an integrated approach focusing on specific areas of multiple disadvantage and allowing for the creation of effective structures for bringing together the public, private, voluntary and community sectors.

In 1991, the Forum Project gave particular priority to work with women. The Rural Women’s Working Group, a group set up within the Forum, identified the needs of women in the area and as a result a course for Women in Community and Enterprise Development was established in October 1991.

The CPA also monitors and supports projects funded by the Department of Social Welfare under the Community Development Programme. This programme provides financial support to community-based resource centres in disadvantaged areas. In 1991, the overall funding to the programme was increased to £750,000. The key objective of the programme is through a community development process, to assist individuals and community groups to assert more control over their lives and over issues that affect their community. In 1991 230 projects were funded under this programme - three of them rurally-based in Louisburg, Inishowen and South West Kerry.

Irish Rural Link which is linked to European networks, is assisted and supported by the CPA. It has been established “to represent the interests of groups involved in locally based rural development, to provide policy commentary on relevant issues and to facilitate the exchange of ideas and information between grassroots rural organisations. It also provides the Irish dimension of the Transeuropean Rural Network.” The CPA also supports on a once-off basis a number of locally-based women’s networks. Two new networks will be supported in 1993.

In summary, the CPA has clearly highlighted the issue of poverty today and in particular its impact on women in disadvantaged areas. The Agency provides funding and support to a range of local women’s projects in marginalised communities. Research undertaken on projects supported by the Agency highlights the need for secure funding for women’s groups and the overall lack of support for women’s initiatives. However, it also highlights the important work that can be funded with limited resources for women’s programmes and support networks.

5.12 Conclusions

This chapter has revealed the wide variety of state interventions in rural areas, some exclusively rural, some exclusively for women. The major initiatives for women - the NOW and the LEI programmes - have included a number of rurally based initiatives but it is as yet too early to assess their impact on rural women. The Department of Social Welfare grants for Women’s Groups are a highly valuable source of initial, small-scale funding for women’s groups. An evaluation of the first year of operation of this programme (1990) indicates that rural-based women are under-represented among the groups receiving support.

While rural women have succeeded, at least to a limited extent, in accessing funding specifically targeted at women the scanty information available indicates that their needs have not been taken into account in the planning, administering or evaluating of major new programmes for rural areas such as LEADER and the OPRD.

Rural women, like their urban counterparts, continue to be largely excluded from representation on the various organisations set up to develop local areas eg: the PESP partnerships, LEADER groups etc.

The state training agencies, CERT, FAS and Teagasc have developed a range of programmes of relevance to rural women. However women continue to be poorly represented on their Boards and on many of their mainline skills programmes e.g. apprenticeship programmes.

The CPA is working towards increasing the general level of awareness of available programmes within local communities. However the range of programmes involved and the paucity of information on women’s participation makes it extremely difficult to assess their true impact on rural women. It appears reasonable to conclude that the particular needs of rural women are not a major consideration in the planning, implementation and evaluation of the majority of such programmes at the present time.

CHAPTER 6

SURVEY OF WOMEN IN RURAL AREAS

This chapter sets out the analysis of responses to a questionnaire survey conducted among rural women. The questionnaire survey was undertaken to establish the views and priorities of rural women respondents. It was also considered timely to test and validate the findings and recommendations emanating from the report of the Second Commission on the Status of Women, which devoted Chapter 6 to ’Rural Women’.

6.1 Survey Sample

Different approaches were used to circulate the questionnaire to a sample of rural women. For the Western Women’s Link ⁴, it was distributed to women, from counties Galway and Mayo, attending their bi-annual seminar in Tuam, Co. Galway. The co-operation of the Irish Countrywomen’s Association (ICA) was obtained to mail the questionnaires to Honourary Secretaries of ICA Guilds in counties Sligo, Cork, Meath, Longford, North Tipperary and Waterford. The views of women involved directly in farming were also sought through the IFA’s Farm Committee which has representatives from each county of Ireland.

In all, 330 questionnaires were sent out with stamped addressed envelopes for their return and 123 completed questionnaires were returned by the deadline, representing a response rate of 37 per cent which is very high for a postal questionnaire. The breakdown of responses is as follows:

The questionnaire was designed to be completed by individuals without direct questioning or guidance, apart from the information supplied in a covering letter (Appendix D). All respondents were assured that their responses were confidential although many supplied their names and addresses. As far as possible the questions were framed to provide factual information (e.g. distance from nearest town, hours worked, etc.), positive/negative responses (e.g. funding sought/obtained) or rating of issues/services on a 3 or 5 point scale (e.g. Good/OK/Poor, or Very/Somewhat/Not Important).

The completed questionnaires were post-coded (for some open-ended questions) and checked before punching and were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences.

6.2 Background Information on Respondents

Demographic Data

A very high proportion of the sample were married by comparison with the total population.⁵ Whereas about 63 per cent of rural women (over the age of 19) were married, no less than 85 per cent of the sample were married. By contrast 5 per cent of the sample and 21 per cent of rural women were single. There was also a smaller incidence of widowhood amongst the sample than in the population.

Of the sample 62 per cent were aged below 50 years and 38 per cent were above. This was somewhat younger than the total population of rural women of whom, of those aged between 19 and 75, approximately 51 per cent were below 50 and 49 per cent above it.

Over one third (35 per cent) of the respondents in the sample had no dependents, which included women whose children had grown up. Of those who had dependent children, the average was 2.6 with 2 the most common number of children. By contrast in the total population the average number was 3.2 children.

Considering that such a high proportion of the sample were married relative to the total, it is not surprising that the proportion of the sample with dependent children was also high. The 65 per cent with dependent children compares with 56 per cent in the total rural population aged over 19.

Education Attainment

The educational attainment of the sample was higher than that of the total rural female population. Whereas about one in four (28 per cent) of rural women left school at the primary level, only 6 per cent of the sample did so. While 4 per cent of rural women left full time education at over age 21, 23 per cent of the sample had third level education. Interestingly, while one might expect younger age groups to have a better formal education than older groups which grew up when opportunities were more restricted, this appears not to have been a marked feature of the sample.

Employment Status

The sample is broadly representative of total rural women in respect of employment: 28 per cent of the sample and 23 percent of the total (over aged 14) describe themselves as employed (including self-employed).

Distance from Nearest Town

Since access and transport are important dimension of rural living, respondents were asked to give the distance between their homes and the nearest town. The average distance reported was 9.6 miles with 69 per cent of the respondents living 10 miles or less from the nearest town. Just one third (34 per cent) lived five miles or less from the nearest town.

Where Born

Over two thirds (68 per cent) of the sample were born in rural areas of which 28 per cent were born in their “own localities” and 37 per cent in other rural areas. Slightly more than one quarter (25 per cent) were born in urban areas in Ireland and 7 per cent were born outside Ireland. In other words almost three quarters (73 per cent) could be regarded as ’outsiders’ in terms of geographical origins.

6.3 Time Devoted to Work/Voluntary Activity

The average amount of time given to housework worked out at 41.9 hours per week. Of the sample 54 per cent devoted 40 hours or more to it and nearly one third (32.0 per cent) devoted 60 hours or more to it per week. Exactly 80 per cent of the sample spent 20 hours or more to housework.

By contrast only 19 per cent of the sample were involved in any paid employment outside the home. Of these 4 per cent worked 35 hours or more, i.e. were employed full time.

Forty-two per cent of the sample undertook at least some work on the farm of whom 5 per cent were paid for it. The average amount of farm work, paid or otherwise, amounted to 20.4 hours per week. Of those who worked on the farm, 17 per cent worked 35 hours or over. All of them were unpaid. About 11 per cent of the sample worked on non-farm family business and about one third were paid. The average amount of work done was 26.5 hours per week.

Voluntary work absorbed a considerable amount of the respondents’ time. Forty-five per cent of the respondents engaged in it to some degree and among them the average time per week was given as 9.3 hours.

The central conclusion is that rural women lead busy lives! Housework takes the lion’s share of the week with 63 per cent of the total number of hours reported. Unpaid work on the farm or the family business makes up 17 per cent of hours worked. Voluntary work comes to 7 per cent of the total. A second conclusion is that little of this time was remunerated. Only 12 per cent of the hours were remunerated and the bulk of that was for paid employment outside the home.

6.4 Perception of Experience of Rural Women

Table 6.5 summarises the responses to the question: “what best describes the experience of rural women?” To only two questions do respondents assent to a positive interpretation: 59 per cent of respondents felt aware of gender issues and 55 per cent expressed satisfaction with their current family role. But if satisfied with their family roles, rural women nevertheless had significant reservations. As might be expected younger women took a somewhat more radical, and older women a slightly more conservative stance on these issues. The high proportion reporting feelings of isolation is also significant.

If the response to this table are taken to reflect the viewpoints of all rural women, then it would suggest that rural women perceive themselves to be:

-poorly represented by decision makers

-financially and legally dependent

-isolated

-unfairly portrayed in the media

but also

-satisfied with their current family role

-aware of gender issues

This profile, while representing a generally negative perspective, does indicate a high level of awareness among rural women. Taken together with the rapid growth in the number of women’s groups in rural areas, the table suggests that now is a very appropriate time for the state to offer rural women support in their moves towards better representation, recognition and job opportunities.

ISSUES FACING RURAL WOMEN

6.5 Access to Information

The respondents were asked to indicate whether information on a range of issues is readily available to them. Table 6.6 ranks the issues according to the number of respondents who replied that the information was not available.

This table presents a number of key findings:

-rural women experience a severe shortage of almost all types of information that affects their lives;

-emigration information comes out as one of the highest ranking issues;

-information on jobs and enterprise is not available to rural women;

-information on funding for rural development and/or women’s groups is not reaching the vast majority of women in rural areas;

-after economic-type information access to legal information is the next most important issue;

-given the political emphasis on alternative development in rural areas there would appear to be an urgent need to develop systems for getting such information to rural women.

Further examination of the data show that women in paid employment reported higher levels of dissatisfaction with the accessibility of information. All of the women in paid employment stated that information on legal rights, funding for women’s groups and emigration advice was not readily available to women in rural areas. Within the context of generally high levels of dissatisfaction with existing access to information very little difference could be seen in the responses from the representatives of the different women’s groups.

6.6 Access to Services

Respondents were asked to give their views on rural women’s access to a range of public and financial services. The responses indicate a high level of dissatisfaction. Table 6.7 ranks the listed services according to the percentage indicating that access was ‘poor’.

Access to training services was most frequently described as ‘poor’ and was mentioned by three-quarters of respondents. This was closely followed by public transport, legal services, child care support and care of the elderly.

These conclusions support the findings of the Second Commission on the Status of Women (1993) which highlighted the fact that rural women have considerable difficulty in relation to transport and care of dependents. Such difficulties prevent women from exercising options in their lives, particularly in relation to work.

Women’s role as carers and the burden which this places on them is clearly seen from these findings. If women are to play a full role in developing rural communities adequate transport, child care and care of the elderly services must be provided in rural areas.

The finding in relation to training is less well supported in the literature. It indicates a strong interest in training among rural women and a need for the state agencies to re-examine the particular training needs of rural women and to evaluate and monitor the level of service which rural women are currently receiving and perceived barriers to availing of training opportunities.

Not surprisingly, access to transport and child care services are perceived to be even more inadequate by respondents who are in paid employment and were mentioned by approximately 80 per cent of such respondents.

6.7 Labour Market Opportunities

Respondents were asked a number of questions about the labour market, in particular the barriers which women face in the labour market.

Table 6.8 clearly shows respondents’ awareness of the overall shortage of job opportunities in Ireland today. However it also indicates the type of support rural women require if they are to become more active in their local economy. Training, child care support, better transport systems and flexible working conditions are all necessary if women are to become more economically active and play a full role in the revitalisation of rural economies. These findings reinforce the recommendations in the report of the Second Commission on the Status of Women.

6.8 State Initiatives in Rural Areas

Respondents were asked whether any of the state agencies had recently introduced initiatives in their area and if so whether women had been actively involved in these developments. Responses to this question indicate a significant level of activity by the state agencies in rural areas. While the findings suggest that the agencies are bringing some activities to the areas in which rural women live, when further questioned about women’s involvement in these initiatives the picture is more varied as Table 6.9 shows.

Table 6.9 highlights the vast array of agencies operating in rural areas in education/training/job creation. This raises questions about co-ordination and the failure to develop an integrated response to the needs of rural areas and this reflects the issues raised in Chapter 2 on the current failure to develop an integrated development policy for rural Ireland.

The table also shows that the training and educational bodies have succeeded in bringing their services to a wide range of rural areas. This finding must be considered in the light of the response to an earlier question on problems of accessing training in rural areas. Clearly more information on, and access to, training and education initiatives are sought by rural women.

The results in relation to women’s involvement in initiatives reinforces the views expressed in the Report of the Second Commission on the Status of Women that women are excluded from the decision-making structures operating in their own areas. Only the CPA, the Universities and RTCs were perceived to have achieved a level of 50 per cent or more of ’high’ female involvement in their rurally-based initiatives. This figure falls to between one half and one quarter for training and job-creation agencies. Clearly a proactive approach to female involvement is required if women are to achieve a fair level of influence over issues that fundamentally affect their lives.

6.9 Funding

As access to funding was highlighted as a vital issue for rural women a number of questions were asked on this topic.

Respondents were first asked about their level of knowledge of the various national and EC funding programmes currently operating in rural areas. (These programmes were discussed in detail in Chapter 5) Table 6.10 gives the responses.

This table reveals the wide variety of programmes aimed at developing rural areas and/or at providing special funding for women’s initiatives. Given that the respondents are all active in various rural organisations (68 per cent are active members of the ICA) the level of knowledge and awareness is very poor. It indicates the value of Department of Social Welfare grants in assisting women to set up groups in their area.

Of the eight programmes listed only the LEADER programme was known to over 50 per cent of the respondents. Department of Social Welfare grants for locally-based women’s groups were the next well known with just under 50 per cent of respondents having ’detailed’ or ’some’ knowledge of them. EC-led initiatives for women’s groups such as NOW or LEI are currently not well known. While this may be due to the newness of the programmes the findings do indicate a clear need for a concerted and integrated information programme to be introduced for rural areas. Funding initiatives will have limited impact in revitalising rural areas if most of the target population have little or no knowledge of them.

Access to Funding

Respondents were asked to indicate whether their guild or group had applied for funding. This revealed that 37 groups had applied for funding. Of these 30 (81 per cent) had received funding. Only 9 per cent of respondents indicated that they had experienced difficulties obtaining funds.

These findings would indicate that lack of information rather than failure to meet the terms and conditions of the funding is the main reason for the low rate of application for available funds. This finding needs to be substantiated by further more detailed research on the experience of individual women’s group in acquiring funding.

Amounts of funding received were generally small. Of those who replied to this question 25 (83 per cent of those receiving funding) had received less than £1,000. Of the remainder, 28 per cent received from £1,000 to £4,000. Only one group cited an amount close to £10,000.

The Department of Social Welfare scheme was by far the most significant source of funding for the sample of rural women’s groups with 73 per cent of funding received coming from this source.

Given the emphasis at both EC and national level on initiatives and funding mechanisms for rural development these findings indicate that there is a need to examine the communications process through which knowledge and access to such funding is disseminated to rural women.

MEANS OF ADDRESSING RURAL WOMEN’S NEEDS

This section examines the responses of rural women concerning specific remedies or mechanisms which might be used to improve their position. Respondents were asked about how they might best access information and the most important support services sought (e.g. child care, credit, bus services). In order to assess the relative importance of different educational/training strategies for women, respondents were asked to rank options which would facilitate rural women in improving their work options. Information was also sought on the forms of assistance financial and non-financial which would assist women and the kind of employment which would be most frequently sought by rural women. Finally this section reports on the economic activities which rural women saw as having maximum potential for development in their own areas.

6.10 Information Needs

The strongest support amongst all respondents was for a Freefone Information Service, followed by a regular Mobile Information Unit (Table 6.11). There was less support for a Home/Farm Advisory Service and least of all for an Urban Information Centre.

The responses showed some differences among the groups of rural women respondents. Respondents from the IFA were most supportive of a Home/Farm Advisory Service which was of less interest to the Western Women’s Link. The ICA representatives expressed a preference for a regular mobile information unit and Freefone service. The option of a regular mobile information unit was also preferred by more respondents from the Western Women’s Link.

Alternative means of providing information to rural women were also mentioned by respondents. Among the Western Women’s Link there were suggestions for a Rural/Local/Women’s Resource Centre which would be financially supported to supply a range of information services (including access to a national database). The IFA respondents mentioned the use of existing infrastructure through television programmes, mobile libraries and local radio. ICA respondents also mentioned the local press and radio, as well as Post Offices, Citizens Advice Bureaux and a Newsletter.

6.11 Support Services

Respondents were asked to rank various support services in terms of how necessary or otherwise they were to rural women. According to Table 6.12 the two most important demands were for day-care for the elderly, followed by child care. The next most important services were for regular buses, local employment advice centres and relief services. Fewer respondents considered the availability of credit facilities to be essential although Free Legal Advice centres and Women’s Organisations/Networks were deemed relatively important. Multi-function centres evoked a mixed response.

As might be expected some groups considered some services more important than others. For instance nearly all of the IFA respondents rated the provision of relief services (for on-farm women in the event of illness, maternity, education etc.) as essential, compared with other groups who would not have regarded them as quite to necessary. The Western Women’s Link were disproportionately supportive of setting up Multi-function Centres, compared with the other two groups. The provision of child care evinced a greater number of responses among ICA respondents.

No real consensus emerged concerning what other support services were needed by rural women in addition to those already listed. A small number of respondents proposed adult education/training provision, women’s health support services (through a Centre, lectures and family planning), information (on entitlements, agri-tourism and grants), regular meetings for women and the encouragement of entrepreneurship among women.

6.12 Opportunities for Further Education/Training

Respondents were asked to rate the relative need for different forms of education/training provision (Table 6.13). Adult education was considered to be the most important form of education/training required by rural women, followed by ’Return to work’ and other vocational training. Fewer respondents rated further education and remedial education as essential while second chance education was somewhere intermediate.

When asked to specify alternative types of education and training courses which would be useful to rural women, confidence building/assertiveness were cited by several respondents.

6.13 Measures to Promote Economic Independence

In this section, rural women were asked to rate how important different measures would be in enabling them to become more financially independent.

Table 6.14 shows that, apart from positive discrimination in employment for women, virtually all initiatives were seen as at least somewhat important to women. The three most significant demands related to eligibility for: employment schemes, social welfare entitlements as independent persons and pension rights. After eligibility for employment, social welfare and pensions, respondents rated the removal of the means test currently used in establishing entitlement to a carer’s allowance. These highly positive responses illustrate how concerned women are about the fact that (a) they are currently excluded from what would be automatic entitlements if they were men and (b) how the role of carer is not adequately remunerated by the state.

There was also a strong degree of support for the availability of enterprise grants for women and the provision of financial and/or technical assistance in setting up enterprises, followed by access to help and support from a local advisor or facilitator.

Changing the times of education/training courses was not seen as being as important to women compared with the need to bring these services closer to women instead of relying on them to reach such services.

These responses point to the fact that women are most concerned about eliminating the anomalous situation in regard to women’s entitlements. Next most important is the need to encourage rural women’s enterprise through grant provision, technical assistance and the appointment of person to advise and facilitate women in getting into business.

Other suggestions which were made in relation to increasing women’s independence were mentioned by only one respondent. These included the provision of capital grants to set up resource/enterprise centres. Others reiterated earlier responses by demanding eligibility for women who left work voluntarily to raise their family to sign on for credits, without requiring 26 week’s contributions. Others wanted ’equal rights within the home’, less red tape and recognition of the contribution of farmers’ wives.

6.14 Training Courses Sought

Given the importance of training to help rural women to be more independent and successful in seeking employment, respondents were asked to rate the relative necessity of different types of training/skills programmes.

There was a general consensus that most of the training courses mentioned were necessary. Those perceived as least necessary were those which were not oriented directly to vocational or personal development i.e. parenting and caring skills and arts/crafts. The emphasis on assertiveness training as the most important form of training is highly significant, particularly when interpersonal skills is also listed but not considered as important. One inference from this is that rural women want empowerment more than the simple ability to communicate effectively or learn other specific skills.

The preference for enterprise-related rather than job-related skills geared to job opportunities in the labour market is also in evidence. Start your own business, marketing, DIY and co-operative enterprise training are the courses identified as most essential after assertiveness.

Somewhat surprisingly, agricultural and horticultural training was only deemed marginally more necessary by the IFA respondents than by others. IFA respondents were less inclined to rate assertiveness training as essential (particularly compared with the responses of the Western Women’s Link), though none rated it less than somewhat necessary. Marketing skills were more positively sought by IFA respondents who may have had specific products/services in mind which could be based within the family farm. Computer skills were deemed more important by ICA respondents and less important by the Western women’s Link respondents.

The only other courses mentioned by more than one respondent was for management skills and women’s studies.

6.15 Type of Employment sought

Taking into account that only 25 per cent of the respondents were in paid employment and that 65 per cent of them had one or more dependent children at home, views were sought on the kind of work arrangements which would be most preferred by rural women.

Full/Part-time Working

As expected, the respondents strongly supported the desire to work part-time in preference to full-time hours. Nearly 87 per cent of the respondents stated part-time and this proportion was exceeded among ICA respondents (89 per cent). The response was only marginally lower among respondents in paid employment, 79 per cent of whom supported part-time working.

All Year/Seasonal Employment

There was far less agreement on the best annual provision of employment. Fifty-three per cent of respondents were in favour of all year round working compared with 47 per cent who supported seasonal arrangements. A higher percentage (69 per cent) of respondents in the Western Women’s Link wanted all year employment in contrast to the IFA respondents, 53 per cent of whom wanted seasonal employment. The ratio was not much different among women in paid employment, 52 per cent of whom favoured all year employment.

Permanent/Temporary

There was a definite preference among respondents for permanent rather than temporary employment for rural women. Nearly 65 per cent overall supported permanent jobs. This proportion was higher again among respondents from the Western Women’s Link (78 per cent) and lower among IFA respondents (53 per cent). For women in paid employment the preference for permanent employment was somewhat lower with 62 per cent.

Home Based/Away from Home

Along with part-time working, respondents indicated a marked preference for employment which was home based, with three-quarters in support of home working rather than in another place of employment. The preference for home working was highest among IFA respondents (78 per cent) and lowest for those in the Western Women’s Link (61 per cent). The enthusiasm for working from the home was also lower among those respondents already in paid employment for whom the percentage in support was 69 per cent.

In conclusion, it can be stated that rural women’s preference, in terms of employment, is for part-time rather than full-time, home based rather than away from home, permanent rather than temporary and all year instead of seasonal.

6.16 Development of Potential in Different Sectors

All respondents were asked to rate the development potential of certain business/employment activities in their local area.

It is clear from the responses in Table 6.16 that rural women put very little reliance on multinational investment to generate rural development. The two categories rural and agri-tourism are seen as having particular potential, followed by agriculture, agri-business and small industrial enterprise. Environment-based and craft development were not seen as likely to generate rural development. Despite the fact that the ICA is actively involved in the promotion of arts and crafts activities, it was the respondents from the Western Women’s Link who were most optimistic about such handicraft activities. The latter group were also more positive about the contribution of rural tourism.

Perhaps being more aware of development in the agricultural sector, the IFA respondents were less optimistic that agriculture, alternative agri-business and rural/agri-tourism could make a great contribution to rural development. Like the Western Women’s Link respondents, IFA respondents claim much greater potential in environmentally-based development.

Respondents were asked to cite other enterprises which might contribute to rural development. The replies are listed in Table 6.17

Not coincidentally the majority of proposed enterprises fall into the category of traditionally female activities: caring, catering and related tourism activities. Nearly one-sixth of respondents felt that child care could be a source of income and development in rural areas. Along with catering/accommodation, tourist ventures, telecommunications, organic production, summer schools and teaching English, these enterprises can be run from the home. Hence they are bound to be appealing and perhaps more economically viable to women, than other non-traditional activities.

6.17 Conclusion

The findings of this survey provide tangible evidence of the lack of information, access to services and state aid experienced by women in rural Ireland and provide clear indications of the type of action required by policy makers if the rhetoric of rural development is to be put in to action.

The survey responses show that rural women require access to key services including adequate transport, child care support and support in caring for the elderly to enable them to play a more effective role in the development of their local communities. They point to the need for a concerted programme of action aimed at bringing such services and funding to women in their own areas.

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 CONCLUSIONS

7.1.1 Introduction

This chapter draws upon the information gained from interviews with key informants (see Appendix A) and the study’s findings to outline the key issues affecting women’s lives in rural Ireland today. The issues encompass the problems, barriers and the potential solutions which are unique to rural women as well as those experienced by urban women.

7.1.2 Rural Development Policy and Practice

Rural development has moved to the centre stage of economic development. It is now a recognised objective of national and EC policy. Rural development encompasses social and community, as well as economic objectives. It must be focused on the key issue of poverty in rural areas, especially in peripheral areas. An integrated policy for the development of rural areas is urgently needed.

The key role which women must play if rural development objectives are to be achieved is not currently being addressed in any serious way. Neither are the needs of rural women, particularly in relation to isolation, being taken into account in the development of new initiatives for rural areas.

7.1.3 Demographic Conditions

By European standards, the female labour force participation rate in Ireland is low and the rate is even lower in rural areas. Ireland has experienced high fertility and birth rates at a time when these have fallen dramatically in most EC countries. Whilst Ireland’s birth rate is now falling there is still a high dependency level of children and elderly people, relative to the population of working age. In rural areas of Ireland there are higher numbers of child dependants and of elderly people. There is also an imbalance of the sexes due to out-migration of women and the lower rate of marriage. Women constitute a smaller number of the total rural population but are more likely than men to be living alone after 65 years of age.

Over forty per cent of rural women aged 15 to 64 years had dependent children and they were also four times as likely as men to be single parents. However, all parts of Ireland are experiencing a demographic shift towards smaller family size and earlier completion of families. This has very important implications for women in rural areas. In earlier generations, most women would have continued to bear and rear children in their homes up to their late fifties. This pattern will become less common in the 1990s when an increasing proportion of women will be free to seek employment, training and educational opportunities, and access to public life. It is therefore an appropriate time to review the access which rural women have and should have to these sources and the barriers that exist to their full participation.

7.1.4. Physical Dispersal/Isolation

A major characteristic of rural areas is the low population density compared with urban areas. Since Independence, high levels of emigration have lead to a further depletion of rural populations throughout most of Ireland. This population loss has adversely affected the social and economic viability of rural communities through curtailment of schools, transport services, clinics, retail outlets and post offices which served them.

A further serious effect of lower population density is to increase the sense of isolation experienced by women and men in rural areas. This is due partly to greater physical distance, accentuated by lack of access to a car or public bus service, and the evolution of the nuclear family structure, thereby minimising the family and kinship support which had traditionally formed a cohesive social network. Many of the married women living in rural areas moved into their husband’s area which, in some instances, left them feeling cut off from their own families and friends, particularly when they had children and remained at home full-time.

7.1.5. Economic Conditions

Rural areas have tended to lag behind the economic growth which occurred with the industrialisation process and few such areas were selected for factory or service sector enterprises which instead tend to locate in urban centres or cities. In recent years the relative buoyancy of some rural economies has tended to be associated with CAP related incentives and payments, none of which have led to increased job opportunities within traditional agricultural activities which have been consistently shedding labour. The current economic climate is clouded by further agricultural decline with predictions of lower farm incomes and a need to diversify into alternative enterprises.

These conditions make it difficult for women who wish to re-enter the formal labour market to find employment. Ironically, women have in the past been squeezed out of ‘peripheral’ farm activities (such as poultry keeping, dairying and pig rearing) by mechanisation and commercial scale intensive production. However the pressure to find alternative enterprises in rural areas may pave the way (albeit negatively) for women to use their skills and initiative in alternative activities such as home-based service provision (e.g. child care, accommodation), rural co-operatives (e.g. crafts and food preparation), alternative agriculture (e.g. goat-rearing, horticulture), agri-business (e.g. cheese-making, weaving) and agri-and rural tourism (e.g. fishing/art/bird watching holiday facilities).

The current lack of an enterprise culture to promote small private and co-operative businesses needs to be addressed in a way which spells out women’s potential role. However, the current focus on the revitalisation and diversification of rural economies by both EC and national Government presents a window of opportunity for women to play a key role in such developments.

7.1.6. Physical and Social Infrastructure

Allied to low population densities and remoteness from urban centres, rural areas face the problem of lack of physical and services infrastructure, ranging from restricted access to the labour market, training centres and educational facilities, lack of adequate public transport, distance from social/health service like hospitals, clinics, Rape Crisis Centres, refuges and family planning centres and information and advice on legal rights and entitlements.

Another major gap in the infrastructure is the absence of child care provision to meet a range of needs. These include the parent/child playgroups, to allow women to drop in and meet other parents, right through to a full range of child care support for parents working full-time, with provision for holidays and after school hours.

For women engaged in farming, a need has been identified for back-up support services, i.e. maternity provision, relief help at times of childbirth, sickness or vocational training.

In short, access to transport, caring for the elderly and child care support are confirmed as the main issues affecting the lives of rural women. Inadequate access to services in general acts as a major barrier to rural women.

7.1.7. Women’s Role and Status

Despite adequate evidence of rural women’s domestic and farm/business related work the social norm and status of rural women remains that of ‘housewife’. As a result the contribution which many women make has not been adequately recognised. Neither are they properly remunerated, by their families or the state, for their work. It is, as yet, unusual for women to have joint ownership and a legal right to a share of profits from the family farm, despite their labour input. Married women who have not been in continuous employment have no independent right to welfare payments such as pensions and disability allowances and sick pay and may be further disadvantaged by their ineligibility for training and social employment schemes which usually require an applicant to be registered as ‘unemployed’ for a set period.

This dependent status is reinforced by institutions such as the CSO, social welfare agencies and the media. The effect has been that women have internalised this message leading to a lack of positive identity and confidence among rural women.

Women’s contribution to the agricultural sector is not valued. The role women play on farms is neither recognised, enumerated or rewarded. Amongst other things, this results in continuing high levels of female emigration from rural areas.

Despite these difficulties women continue to make a major contribution to rural areas. Women are highly motivated, highly active and committed to the sustainable development of their local areas. Women’s groups are flourishing in rural areas throughout the country. Women bring a broader perspective to rural issues. They are acutely aware of the need to broaden the agenda to cover social, community as well as economic issues.

The success of these groups deserves to be more widely appreciated and disseminated by the media in order to portray a more accurate image and to encourage other rural women to follow in the footsteps of the successful groups.

7.1.8. Funding

Funds for women currently available through the EC-supported LEIs and the NOW scheme are ludicrously low compared with the needs to be addressed. To date there has been no full scale commitment to the kind of positive action which is needed to redress the current imbalance and to set targets for women’s access to funds from all EC and nationally funded initiatives (e.g. LEADER, OPRD). Such an approach would require that women receive a minimum percentage share of grants and places on programmes, rising incrementally with the imposition of quotas if targets were not met over a stated time span. This will require the development and implementation of systems for monitoring the gender impact of all programmes and funding mechanisms.

The funding specifically available for women in rural areas, while welcome, may encourage the continuing segregation of women and their continued exclusion from mainline programmes. Programmes like NOW and LEI, while providing much needed seed funding for women’s groups, should become pathways into the mainline funding streams.

All actions to develop rural areas must take into account the enormous variation in such areas and the continuing vital role which the agricultural sector must play in ensuring their viability.

7.1.9. Training and Enterprise Support

Education and training are perceived to be the key to greater choice for rural women. Even when access for women exists there is no integrated approach whereby a woman-centred programme of training equips rural women:

-for initial re-entry to the labour market through finding jobs, adverts, preparing CVs, interviews, personal skills;

-mainline training programmes in non-traditional areas e.g. software engineering, printing, domestic appliance servicing;

-enterprise development including (a) training in, for example, finance, marketing, customer service; (b) advice, then support, in applying for funding; (c) on-going advice when ’in business’ to overcome start-up problems.

Rural women may also be effectively excluded from training/development programmes which are geared entirely to full-time training provision for people with no dependants. There is a marked preference among women, particularly in rural areas, for part-time or flexible hours of work. The need for modular, part-time and other flexible training opportunities is also acute and such provision would attract more women as well as ease the way back into employment. Existing eligibility criteria for social welfare and training services are creating unfair barriers for rural women.

7.1.10. Representation on Agricultural and Other Organisations

As this study shows, women are not adequately represented on key decision-making and funding allocation bodies, at national or local level. This situation means that women do not have access to vital information (e.g. about new programmes/schemes) and are less likely to submit and/or obtain support for their proposals. Hence it perpetuates a never ending cycle of exclusion. While women remain outside the decision-making arena (whether it be agriculture, tourism, local enterprise development organisations) their voice is not heard, they remain invisible and their contribution is not sought.

While many initiatives have been put in place to develop rural areas they have failed to involve women to any significant extent. Women are neither sufficiently informed about them or involved in their planning or implementation.

Women are not actively involved in decision-making structures in rural areas. Given the traditional nature of many of these structures special action is required to ensure that women play a full role in the decisions that affect their lives.

7.1.11. Accreditation for Women’s Experience

Women find that after a period out of the labour force their skills may have become out of date (e.g. shorthand typing) and that the experience they have gained working part time on the farm, or in the family business while at the same time managing a home and rearing children is not counted. This needs to be rectified in Ireland by a form of accreditation such as that now being examined in some EC member states. In the absence of formal accreditation, education and training programmes should take account of such experience amongst rural women.

7.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

The recommendations are grouped into four categories dealing respectively with integration of rural development policies and programmes; greater recognition of women’s roles; positive action to ensure that women are able to fully participate; and better access to services.

7.2.1. Integration

Integrated Polices

There is an urgent need to develop integrated policies for rural development in Ireland. Such policies require agreement on and commitment to a particular vision of viable rural areas and must fully incorporate the views, opinions and perspectives of rural women.

To counter the existing diffusion of responsibility between a number of Departments and state agencies we propose the establishment of Rural Development Council, somewhat along the lines of the body in Northern Ireland. This would have representation from the main rural groups (e.g. ICA and IFA) and the relevant Departments (e.g. Agriculture and Food, Enterprise and Employment, and Equality) and state agencies (Teagasc, IDA, FAS). One of its functions would be to advise the Government on rural development policy. But, while not being an executive agency, it would have funding to finance research, sponsor pilot schemes, subsidise services of particular value to rural communities and pay for a team of rurally based coordinators/facilitators.

The promotion of policies and measures to facilitate the full participation of women in rural economic and social life would be one of the principal functions of the Rural Development Council and this would be fully articulated in its board membership, organisation and staffing. Consistent with recommendations which follow, a minimum of 40 per cent of its board members would be women.

The Council could operate through existing structures including, in the case of initiatives for women, voluntary groups like the ICA, LEADER organisations or PESP companies. The Community Enterprise Partnership Boards in rural areas could also provide a local framework within which the Council could place field workers to support initiatives for women.

The Government should set up an inter-Departmental Working Party which in consultation with the Rural Development Council should develop integrated policies for rural areas involving the Departments of Agriculture and Food, Enterprise and Employment and Equality. Full account should be taken of the potential of the County Enterprise Partnership Boards.

Integrating Training and Education Agencies

These agencies must develop systems to ensure that the particular needs of rural women are addressed in planning and implementing their programmes. Such programmes must be based on the real needs of rural women and must be brought to the rural areas. This requires the development of an integrated ’outreach’ programme by all the relevant agencies such FAS, Teagasc, CERT and the VECs. Locally-based assertiveness training and enterprise training is most urgently required. These agencies should develop and implement systems to increase participation on their programmes by rural women.

The Rural Development Council should bring together the education and training organisations to:

-develop models of the stages of development of women’s groups and use this to plan future provision;

-develop integrated programmes for women in rural areas based on detailed research on women’s needs, focusing on enterprise and assertiveness training especially geared towards rural and agri-tourism.

Integrating Employment Strategies

Employment strategies for rural areas must be based on the development of rurally-based local enterprise rather than placing exclusive reliance on traditional employment creation mechanisms. Again such a strategy requires an integrated approach by all the relevant agencies such as the IDA, Udaras, Shannon Development, FAS, CERT and Teagasc. The Rural Development Council should play an important role in securing the integration of the activities of these agencies in rural areas.

Rural and agri-tourism are seen as offering the best potential for rural areas. Initiatives to assist women to develop viable tourism enterprises must include support for women’s other roles as mothers, carers and agricultural workers.

Integrated Funding Mechanisms

Integrated funding mechanisms are required which take into account the evolutionary nature of women’s involvement in the rural economy: flexible, small scale seed funding for women at the start of the process through to large scale, permanent funding for women at the more advanced stages of economically viable enterprises.

A two pronged strategy for funding women’s initiatives is required, at least in the short term.

First, special funding for women must continue and be expanded in the light of the high level of demand for such funding. Special funding for women must have clear pathways into mainline funding.

Second, women must also gain greater access to mainline funding for rural areas. This requires that the needs of women be taken into account in planning, designing and implementing new initiatives, that women receive adequate information on such initiatives and that women’s involvement in such initiatives is monitored and regularly reported on. If such steps are taken, the need for special funding for women will decline. If it fails it will be necessary to introduce quotas for women in such initiatives. A reasonable timescale for achieving a fair representation and a proportion of funds for women must be set.

There are a number of stages of development that women groups go through in becoming fully involved in local development. Research should be undertaken on the exact working of these stages and a model of this process should be developed and used to guide future initiatives. These stages must be recognised and built into all new programmes and initiatives. These stages are:

a.start up: recognition/encouragement, small scale funding and support for accessing information, advertising, planning and preparation for group activity;

b.getting together: financial support for women to meet and form groups. Non directional support for confidence building, support services such as child care and transport;

c.awareness raising: looking at health, stress issues, presenting options for further development, developing leaders, access to a rural coordinator, small grants, listening to what women want;

d.education and training: bringing training to the local area, outreach programmes;

e.economic activity: enterprise/business development/further specific training, acquisition of ongoing assistance, proper follow-up, core on-going funding, potential from information technology explored and developed;

f.business start-ups: ‘hand-holding’ over a number of years.

7.2.2. Recognition of Women’s Contribution

Women’s vital role in rural development must be recognised by government departments and agencies, including the CSO, and by society generally in terms of status, remuneration levels and involvement in decision-making bodies. This could easily begin by the introduction of systems that recognise the full role which women play in farming. Therefore, the Central Statistics Office should change its recording systems to accurately measure women’s contribution to the agricultural sector.

Positive images of women and their contribution to rural development must be encouraged in schools, development agencies and the media. The Rural Development Council should be charged with the preparation and dissemination of appropriate materials.

7.2.3 Positive Action

Women’s Participation

To redress the serious gender imbalance in decision-making in rural areas positive action is required. The Department of Equality should take steps to ensure that targets for women’s participation on State boards are established and implemented. These targets should start at a minimum of 20 per cent representation by women and this should reach 40 per cent in four years as laid out in the Programme for Government. The Government should put pressure on nominating bodies to boards and committees (such as the proposed County Enterprise Partnership Boards) to ensure that women are nominated so as to attain the 40 per cent figure within the four years.

Gender-proofing

There is an urgent need for the introduction of gender proofing in the public sector. All monitoring must include a gender focus. Any failure to fully involve women over an agreed period must be reported on and proposals made as to how the imbalance can be addressed. The Department of Equality should have general authority in this area, but as far as rural women are concerned, the Rural Development Council should have a particular responsibility to advise the Department.

7.2.4. Access

Support Services

Support services are required to maximise the contribution which existing women’s groups can make to rural development. The following initiatives ought to be implemented in rural areas:

-Pilot projects of the establishment of multi-functional women’s resource centres in rural areas. These would provide information and advice on a range of matters such as health, legal entitlements, education, and training. They would also facilitate the provision of services such as care for children and elderly people.

-Pilot projects of the development of a low-priced help line telephone service for rural women unable to access the resource centres.

-Pilot projects to improve transport services in rural areas. These improvements might be based on the utilisation of school buses, multi-functional ’post buses’ or private mini-bus operators.

The Rural Development Council should fund the pilot studies on the multi-functional resources centres but all of the pilot projects should be monitored and evaluated by the Council.

Social Welfare Services

Eligibility requirements for social welfare entitlements should be examined by the Department of Equality to ensure equal access to women. Any similar changes needed in the requirements of the educational and training agencies should also be made.

7.2.5 Further Research

As our own research has shown, there is a need to find out more about the extent of participation by women in state funded programmes in rural areas. There is also a need to know more about the needs, aspirations and plans of women in rural Ireland. Action based research is required to ensure that scarce funding is directed in the most efficient and effective way.

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APPENDIX A

LIST OF EXPERTS CONSULTED

APPENDIX B

SELECTED STATISTICS ON WOMEN IN RURAL IRELAND

Household Budget Survey 1987

These data relate to rural households defined as those located outside the boundaries of cities and towns (including suburban areas) of 1,500 inhabitants and is the same definition as is used in the Census of Population. (Based on a national sample of 2,866 households, after re weighting)

APPENDIX C

STATISTICS ON HEALTH FUNDING FOR WOMEN’S GROUPS

Source: Department of Health (1). Includes amounts provided from the National Lottery.

Source: Department of Health.

APPENDIX D

QUESTIONNAIRE

CONFIDENTIAL

Questionnaire Survey

on

Women in Rural Ireland

for the

Joint Oireachtas Committee on Women’s Rights

Section 1 Key Issues Facing Rural Women

Below are a number of issues which have been highlighted as important in rural areas We would like you to consider each of these issues and how they affect rural women.

A Information Issues

1.1In your view are the following types of information readily accessible by women in rural areas? (Please tick Yes or No for each type)

B Access to Services

1.3How would you describe rural women’s access to the following Public and Financial Services? (Please tick one box for each service)

C Labour Market Issues

1.4In your view, what are the most important barriers to the increased involvement of rural women in the Labour Market: (Please tick one box for each potential barrier)