Committee Reports::Report No. 02 - Gender Equality in Education in the Republic of Ireland (1984-1991)::01 March, 1992::Appendix

A Report on Research Commissioned by the Joint Oireachtas Committee on Women's Rights into the Current Position regarding the Committee's 1984 Report on Education with particular reference to the implementation of the Committee's Recommendations.

INTRODUCTION

In October 1988 I was invited by the Chairwoman and the Clerk of the Joint Oireachtas Committee on Women’s Rights to examine the current situation regarding gender equality in Ireland. Essentially, as I understood it at the time, they were asking two questions:

The 1984 Report of the Joint Committee was comprehensive and broad-ranging: this explains the length of the present report which derives its structure from the 1984 Report.

I submitted my First Draft Report to the Chairwoman and the Clerk of the Committee and to all interested parties for their reactions in June 1989, around the time of the dissolution of the 25th Dáil. At that stage I was advised by the Clerk to await the re-constitution of the Joint Committee. In March 1990 I decided to update the report in the light of responses the first Draft; the reactions of Mr Denis Healy, Assistant Secretary, Department of Education and Ms Margaret Kelly, Principal Officer, Department of Education, were particularly valuable at this point.

This second Draft was submitted to the Department of Education and to the Minister for Education’s Special Adviser for comment in December 1990. The present report has been revised in the light of their comments and of developments up to January 1992. While every attempt has been made, within the limits of available resources, to update the Report in the light of on-going developments, I have learned that it is difficult to keep fully up to date on so many fronts. One has to draw the line somewhere. Now that consultations regarding the proposed Education Act are getting under way we have reached a particularly appropriate time in the evolution of our education system for the publication of this Report.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A great many people have helped during my research for this Report. In particular I wish to acknowledge the help and support of Mr Denis Healy, Assistant Secretary, Department of Education, who responded very promptly to all requests and whose comments on the first and second drafts were so valuable. Denis put me in contact with many officials in his Department, all of whom were just as co-operative and courteous as he was. I hope that I have included all of their names in the following list of people whose help I wish to graciously acknowledge:

*Albert Ó Ceallaigh, Chief Executive Officer, National Council for Curriculum and Assessment

I wish to acknowledge the assistance given by officials in the DENI, DES and Scottish Education Department in relation to information on subject uptake.

The graphs relating to subject provision allocation and choice were researched and prepared by Ivor O’Shea a post-graduate student at Thomond College.

Dr Eamon Murphy, University of Limerick, gave expert advice on statistical matters.

Mr Seamus Killeen, The Clerk to the Joint Committee, has been extremely patient and unfailingly helpful as has his successor, Ms Una Connolly.

The Chairwoman of the Committee, Ms Monica Barnes, T.D., afforded me every freedom in relation to the research and was supportive at all times.

Mary Smith took on the typing of this report when the Secretarial Service which had prepared the first Draft closed down. She was a pleasure to work with and I wish to thank her most sincerely for her willing co-operation and tremendous efficiency under difficult circumstances.

SUMMARY

EDUCATION POLICY

(i)Official Department of Education policy favours the establishment of co-educational schools at post-primary level and all new primary schools are co-educational. There has been a steady and significant increase in the population of mixed post-primary schools (Table 3) and there has been a slight increase in the number of co-educational schools (Table 1) at this level with an attendant fall in the number of single sex schools. Girls are less likely than boys to attend a mixed second level school. Significantly more boys now attend mixed second level schools than boys’ schools while the ratio of girls attending single sex schools to girls attending co-ed schools at second level has dropped from 1.6:1 in 1980 to 1.1:1 in 1989.

The ratio of mixed primary schools has been growing slowly (Table 5). There has been a significant increase in the ratios of boys and girls attending mixed primary schools since 1980 (Tables 6, 7).

The international research evidence on co-educational schooling suggests that girls may not always fare as well either academically or socially in mixed schools as in single sex schools. The GEAR Project, which began in September 1989, aims to identify and remedy existing problems with co-education rather than to abandon the principle of co-education. The ESRI study, The Quality of Their Education, found that co-ed schools were particularly effective in promoting young peoples’ personal and social development.

(ii)In regard to the issue of sexism in schools textbooks the Department of Education has issued guidelines for publishers on the need to avoid sexism and sex-stereotyping. Only textbooks which comply with the guidelines have since been added to the approved list for use in national schools.

The Cúrsaí Comhrá programme constitutes the biggest single problem in this regard. The sexist nature of this material is not disputed but its revision has been delayed by financial considerations (it is estimated that it will cost £3m+ to replace these materials) and by the wait for the deliberations of the Review Body on the Primary Curriculum (published in May 1990). The Report of the Review Body does not contain any reference to this issue.

The I.N.T.O. request for a working group to consider the general issue of sexism in textbooks - made in 1985 - was acceded to by the Department in late 1988. This working group has, to date, reviewed the guidelines for publishers, examined the research available on gender equity with particular reference to textbooks and teaching materials, re-examined the Cúrsaí Comhrá Gaeilge and first standard textbooks in Irish, English and Mathematics and commissioned the preparation of a checklist for use in determining the degree of sexism in textbooks. The withdrawal of textbooks already approved for use is also being considered by the working party.

The INTO regards the question of sexism in textbooks as one of the main issues to be tackled. They are concerned about the lack of a mechanism for monitoring the implementation of the guidelines and the Union’s Equality Committee is currently examining the entire range of primary school textbooks.

Apart from literary texts such as Shakespearean plays, textbooks at second level are not prescribed and cannot be controlled in the same way as at primary level. They are, however, also subject to the guidelines for publishers. A working party was established recently by the Department of Education to consider sexism in post-primary textbooks.

(iii)The publication by the Department of Education in March 1990 of a policy statement on gender equity (see Appendix 1) marks a significant new development - it is the first such statement in the Republic of Ireland.

(iv)The Secretary to the Department of Education spoke about the importance of gender equality in his address to a E/C Conference on Education and Training in May 1990. He referred to the TENET programme (see 3 below), to the role of equal opportunities in relation to technological and future competitiveness and to the wider provision of co-educational schools. Referring to the Home Economics for girls versus Metalwork for boys debate as a ‘red herring’, he suggested that increased participation by girls in higher mathematics and science subjects was the real issue.

(v)Department of Education measures against inequality/sexism are listed on page 47 of the Report.

CURRICULUM

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN RELATION TO CURRICULUM

The Interim Curriculum and Examinations Board (C.E.B.) identified sex stereotyping as an issue to be addressed. The National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (N.C.C.A.) - an advisory body - has, to date, focused its attention on the introduction of the Junior Certificate and on the promotion of modern European languages and technology in the school curriculum. The view of the Department of Education is that gender equality is part of the remit of the N.C.C.A.; according to the Chief Executive of the N.C.C.A. gender equity as a specific issue was not an immediate priority for the Council prior to 1991. The Minister for Education included gender equity in the terms of reference of the N.C.C.A. in 1991. The Chief Executive Officer of the Council feels that the revisions made to the junior cycle curriculum in the Junior Certificate will benefit young women in a number of ways: greater flexibility arising out of the provision of two levels in all subjects; the introduction of a core plus modular format in Science and the proposed revision of Home Economics along similar lines; the introduction of a new Junior Technology programme. A modular curriculum structure has advantages in relation to the promotion of equal opportunities: there was considerable enthusiasm for such a structure in the publications of the Interim C.E.B.

The coverage of gender issues across the whole curriculum is required as a cross-curricular theme in the new National Curriculum in England and Wales. Gender equity was suggested as a possible cross-curricular theme in the Junior Certificate by the N.C.C.A. in 1991.

Science and Technology are prescribed core subjects in the National Curriculum in England and Wales and in the national curricular framework in Scotland for all young people up to the end of compulsory schooling. The situation regarding core curriculum at second level in this jurisdiction as laid down in Rules and Programmes has varied according to school type up until 1991. Secondary schools had less freedom in regard to subject provision than other schools under these regulations: this has made the promotion of gender equity particularly difficult for them. The National Council for Curriculum and Assessment proposed in 1991 that all young people be required to take a Science or Technology subject in the Junior Certificate. It is being suggested now (late 1991) that both Science and Technology be core for all junior cycle pupils.

While the recently published Report of the Review Body on the Primary Curriculum makes no specific reference to gender issues, the re-formulated aims of primary education as stated in the report are ’neutral’ in that they constantly refer to what ’children’ will do - the language used in the 1971 Handbook was sexist in this respect, using the male pronoun consistently. The Report of the Review Body makes no reference to sexism in the various syllabi in the 1971 Handbook; while it considers a range of topics under the heading ’other curriculum issues’ - health education, the introduction of modern European language, the introduction of I.T., the needs of the disadvantaged and assessment procedures - gender issues are not considered under this heading either. Yet the Minister for Education is reported in 1988 as having required both the Review Body and the N.C.C.A. to ensure that ‘sexism and stereotyping be eliminated from curricula and that they work towards the implementation of gender equality in schools’.

The Report of the Primary Education Review Body, while it addresses many of the issues raised in the 1984 Report of the Joint Oireachtas Committee, does not contain any reference to gender issues.

The pragmatic and utilitarian nature of our present education system is the target of frequent criticism: the Joint Oireachtas Committee adverted to this issue in 1984. This development has its roots in the ‘Investment in Education’ policy under the “Second Programme for Economic Expansion” which was wholeheartedly supported by successive Ministers for Education. Dr Kathleen Lynch’s recent study on The Hidden Curriculum in Irish second level schools highlights the bias towards the technical development of the individual, the competitive individualism of relations between pupils in their formal (and informal) curriculum and the lack of individual autonomy permitted to pupils in our second level system. She goes on to question the prevailing wisdom that Ireland requires the expansion of technical education, finding no evidence for the view that the industrial or service sectors will require high levels of technical skill. She proposes an alternative explanation for the expansion of technical education, namely the creation of a small technical elite. The Commission of the European Community’s Industrial Research and Development Advisory Committee has, on the other hand, expressed concern regarding shortages of scientists, engineers, technologists and technicians.

Specifically in relation to gender Lynch concluded that there are significant differences in the ethos of boys’ and girls’ schools. She points out that while girls are presented with two seemingly contradictory role models there is a much more singular orientation in boys’ schools and she suggests that the relationship between hidden curriculum and the under-achievement of women in the academic and business worlds merits further analysis.

Leaving Certificate subject provision, allocation and choice (1981-89) The present report focuses on eleven Leaving Cert subjects in the technical, scientific and business areas. In relation to subject provision (see Table 9) there has been an increase in the total number of schools providing nine of the subjects in question over this period - the exceptions being Home Economics (General) and Economics. There has been a dramatic increase (50%) in the number of girls’ schools providing Physics and a modest increase in the number offering Higher Maths (10%) and Accounting (9%) - the total number of girls’ schools has dropped by 8% during the same period. While the overall drop of 15% in the number of boys’ schools during this period is reflected in the general levels of subject provision there have been significant increases in the provision of Building Construction (59%), Technical Drawing (26%) and Home Economics (S&S) (136%) in boys’ schools.

The number of mixed schools has increased nationally by 15%; there have been dramatic increases in mixed schools in the levels of provision of Home Economics (S & S) (47%), Higher Maths (36%) and Physics (63%). Increases in provision levels for all subjects in such schools outstrip the increase in the proportion of mixed schools with the exception of Home Economics (G) and Economics.

While there has been a significant increase in the number of girls’ schools offering Physics it must be pointed out that the greatest differences in provision rates for Leaving Certificate subjects in single sex schools by gender are in Home Economics, Physics, and Technical Drawing (see Table 10) - all these differences are in the expected direction. There are also differences in favour of boys in the following subject areas in the case of single sex schools: Agricultural Science, Engineering, Building Construction and Economics and in favour of girls in Biology.

The same pattern emerges in relation to Intermediate Certificate subject provision in single sex schools. Provision rates for Home Economics, Woodwork, Metalwork and Mechanical Drawing are sex stereotyped to a remarkable degree in such schools (see Table 11). Science A was not provided for 9.6% of girls as against 4.3% of boys attending single sex schools in 1988-89. The proportions of boys and girls in such schools for whom Higher Maths was not provided in 1988-89 were almost identical.

Within mixed schools the practice of allocating certain Leaving Certificate subjects to boys (especially) or girls only is rare (see Table 10) with the exception of Engineering, Technical Drawing, Building Construction and Home Economics. In the period 1985-88 the most significant improvements in this regard have occurred in relation to Technical Drawing and Home Economics. Higher Maths, Physics, and Agricultural Science are offered to a slightly higher proportion of boys than girls in mixed schools. Accounting and Business Organisation are offered to a slightly higher proportion of girls but there is an increasing tendency to offer them to both sexes in both mixed and single sex schools.

At Intermediate Certificate level Woodwork, Metalwork and Mechanical Drawing are not provided for a significant proportion of girls attending mixed schools while the same is true of Home Economics in the case of boys. However the situation in regard to Home Economics, Woodwork and Mechanical Drawing improved significantly between 1985 and 1988 in such schools. Commerce is less likely to be offered to boys than to girls in mixed schools. Higher Maths and Science A were offered to all boys and virtually all girls in mixed schools in 1988.

With regard to Leaving Certificate subject choice in general the most noticeable advances in the non-stereotyped direction have occurred in relation to Physics (particularly) and Higher Maths. There have also been slight moves in the direction of de-stereotyping in the case of a number of other subjects, Home Economics (S&S) being the most noteworthy. In the case of Business subjects the move is towards higher levels of male participation. Gender imbalance is most pronounced in the choice of Building Construction, Engineering and Technical Drawing. The over-riding significance of student choice in relation to subject uptake is acknowledged. The tendency for girls (especially) and boys to move away from the Humanities subjects into science and business is evidence of this.

Female participation rates in the Aer Lingus Young Scientist Competition have been very high (66% of all entrants to date were female). The data suggests that girls show a preference for group projects; that there is sex-stereotyping in relation to categories and that male teachers are more likely to be involved. Young women are under-represented in the list of category prizewinners and in the list of outright winners.

A higher proportion of boys than girls achieved A grades at Leaving Certificate Higher Level in Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Technical subjects in 1990 and in 1989 and in Higher Inter Cert Mathematics in 1990; these differences were statistically highly significant in the case of Mathematics, Chemistry and Physics. An international study found that, while boys and girls had similar scores in mathematics at age 9, boys scored significantly higher than girls at age 13. Boys perform significantly better than girls in Science at ages 9 and 13, notwithstanding our poor showing in respect of most other countries.

The regulations for the ’Leaving Certificate Vocational Programme’ (announced in June 1989) require that students taking the new programme must follow the Leaving Certificate programme in at least five subjects to include two subjects from Construction Studies, Engineering and Technical Drawing. This condition, on the basis of the data included at 2.2 in the Report, effectively rules out female participation in an ESF funded programme where the emphasis is on the use of new technologies.

While the same broad picture emerges in relation to subject choice in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, it appears that subject uptake for Leaving Certificate in the Republic of Ireland is somewhat more stereotyped than it is for the relevant examinations in these other jurisdictions. The proportion of girls taking Higher Maths, Physics and Chemistry is lower here. While female participation rates in technical subjects are low all over they are especially low in the Republic of Ireland and this picture is complemented by particularly high levels of female participation here in Biology, Home Economics and Art/Craft. It should be added that Intermediate Certificate participation rates in the relevant subjects by gender for the Republic of Ireland compare quite favourably with participation rates in the other jurisdictions at the end of compulsory schooling.

Data on the gender of student participants in the new Junior Certificate Technology programme were not made available to the author. While girls’ schools and schools containing girls are well represented in the first cohort (1988-89) of participating schools there has been a fall off in the proportion of girls’ schools in the second cohort (1990-91). The C.E.O. of the N.C.C.A., while pointing out that this was not the only subject which had a role in familiarising young women with non-traditional subjects, saw the provision of greater access to technology for girls as a major objective of this new programme. He also suggested that the Council is considering the question : should technology be a core subject for all? While there is no evidence of any intention to upgrade the status of Computer Studies in schools the new Junior Cert Business Studies Syllabus does include a section on New Information Technology.

In relation to the Junior Certificate Technology programme the following issues arise from a gender equity point of view.

(a)The lack of information regarding the gender of participating students and teachers.

(b)The drop in the proportion of girls’ schools participating in the second cohort as against the first.

(c)The failure of the nominating bodies to ensure that the Course Committee includes women - this has been overcome by the co-option of two women on to the Committee.

(d)The research literature is replete with evidence on the importance of ’girl-friendliness’ in relation both to curriculum content and pedagogy if young women are to adopt non-traditional careers/subjects. On the evidence of interviews conducted by the author the focus of related in-service work to-date has been on resources, knowledge and skills and there are no plans to address issues of gender differences in students’ attitudes or to deal with the implications for teachers of ensuring a ’friendly’ experience for girls.

The 1984 J.O.C. report rightly identifies timetabling as an issue affecting subject and career choice. The introduction of modularisation, as alluded to by the C.E.O. of the N.C.C.A., would certainly make a positive contribution to gender equity. While it must be recognised that time-tabling options have been reduced in the context of recent ‘economies’ (see 6 below) it should also be said that many aspects of educational administration, including timetabling, are poorly provided for in our system.

While female participation rates in third level education are increasing at a faster rate than those of males, there are significant gender differences in relation to chosen fields of study. Females are very under-represented in the field of technology while they are over-represented in Hotel, Catering and Tourism, Social Science, Education and Art and Design. The second level trends noted earlier are reflected in choices at third level.

In the case of H.E.A. designated colleges Arts, Social Science and Communications and Information Studies attracted a disproportionate number of females whereas Engineering, Agricultural Science and Commerce attracted a disproportionate number of male students. The most significant shift has occurred in Dentistry and Medicine where females now constitute the majority.

In the case of the non H.E.A. designated colleges there were a highly disproportionate number of female participants in General Engineering and Construction Studies. Females were significantly over-represented in Business, Administrative and Secretarial Studies, Education, General Studies, Hotel, Catering and Tourism, Art and Design and Science. Computer Studies had the smallest sex differential in the non H.E.A. designated Colleges.

Education as Preparation for Life

The effectiveness of the existing Civics programme has been seriously questioned for some time now and the N.C.C.A. is currently considering the adoption of a modular cross-curricular approach to the teaching of Civics. It appears that the proposal of the Interim C.E.B. to introduce a new subject called ‘Social, Political and Environmental Education’ has been superseded by this development. Indeed the introduction of any additional subject on to an already over-crowded stage deserves to be seriously questioned.

The preparation of ‘the young person for the responsibilities of citizenship’ is one of the declared aims of the Junior Certificate. The Guide to The Junior Certificate identifies civic and political education as a common theme and suggests that a number of the new syllabi offer opportunities for the development of such attitudes. It remains to be seen how this aspiration will be implemented.

The Junior Certificate Business Studies Syllabus contains sections on The Business of Living, Personal Finance and Economic Awareness. The Leaving Certificate Home Economics (S&S) course also deals with preparation for living. But neither Business Studies or Home Economics are core subjects.

The ESRI study The Quality of Their Education, found that civic and political education was given a very low priority rating and a very low satisfaction rating by school leavers.

The Transition (from School to Adult and Working Life) Projects have addressed this general issue while there is also scope for it in the context of Transition Year Option (TYO) and Vocational Preparation and Training (VPT). One of the Transition II Projects (SPIRAL II) had the familiarisation of young women with non-traditional occupations as one of its briefs.

The recent announcement regarding the introduction of a six-year cycle for all pupils commencing their post-primary education in 1991 should make it easier for schools to provide education for life for those young people staying on in school. The N.C.C.A. proposal for Senior Cycle is based on the premise that the Leaving Certificate alone cannot cater for the range of needs which exists.

Young People with Psychological Problems

Problems such as child sex abuse, emotional disturbance and drug abuse now form part of the classroom agenda for many teachers. A working group representative of the Department, the INTO, school management and parents was established in February 1989 to agree on procedures/guidelines for primary schools in handling cases of suspected child abuse. Final agreement had not been reached on these guidelines in April 1991. The treatment of children with psychological problems is dealt with in the Diploma Course in Special Education.

The need for a guidance and counselling service in primary schools has been identified by

(ii)Research carried out by the Social Research Centre at the University of Limerick commissioned by the Mid-Western Health Board, 1988

In fact a psychological service was established on a pilot basis in the 1989/90 school year to serve primary schools in two areas of the country, one rural and one urban.

The Department of Education official with responsibility in this area feels that there is a limit to the role of the school, working on its own in this regard, and recognises the need for co-operation between schools and other agencies. He also referred to the changing role of the Guidance Counsellors to one of a support function where guidance is seen as a team effort under the direction of the Guidance Counsellor. While this model is consistent with the findings of the final report on the E/C Transition Projects it clearly has significant INSET implications. He suggests that the most effective model for substance abuse education involves the integration of the topic into general provision in a developmental way with careful co-ordination at school level and support for the school in terms of INSET, resource materials etc. Examples of practical approaches along these lines may be seen in individual schools and in some of the projects supported by Regional Health Boards according to this official.

There is a problem with regard to the availability of specialist counselling services throughout the country. An In-Service course is provided in relation to Substance Abuse Education each year in the Dublin area. Information regarding resource provision, pilot projects, seminars and training programmes in relation to substance abuse for the period 1985-90 is provided in the Report.

Sex Education

The Department of Education published ‘Guidelines on the Development of Sex/Relationships Education’ in 1987. These guidelines make it very clear that the primary responsibility for sex/relationships education must rest with the parents. The document acknowledges that the role of schools is one of supplementing the work of parents and suggests that sex education should be treated as a cross-curricular matter including the normal social, emotional and physiological aspects of sexuality and taking account of the pupils’ ages and stages of development.

There is general acceptance that most second level schools are making some provision for sex/relationships education; it would be of some interest to compare such provision in boys’ schools with similar provision in girls’ and mixed schools. The Health Promotion Unit of the Department of Health and the Psychological Services section of the Department of Education have collaborated on the development of AIDS Education Resource Materials. These materials were made available to all post-primary schools in 1990 and seminars were organised at local level to help teachers to integrate and use the materials. The Minister has outlined the background to the production of this pack and has stressed its non-prescriptive nature (2.5.7 below).

The Primary Curriculum Review Committee recommended that health education, including sexuality education, should be treated as a cross-curricular theme in primary schools, co-ordinated and monitored by the Department of Education. A similar approach to health education is proposed in the ’Guide to the Junior Certificate’. The I.N.T.O. in its recently published policy document on Sex Education also favours a cross-curricular approach while the T.U.I. wants a comprehensive national policy on the matter including the preparation of an agreed syllabus.

Some of the findings of the Mid-Western Health Board’s pilot Health Education Project at primary level which began in 1984 are of interest here. Teachers felt that health education should not be confined to the P.E. class but would be more effectively dealt with using a combination of a cross-curricular approach and formal time-tabled classes. They identified the need for relevant guidelines, resources and training. The Project Director has concluded that a comprehensive in-service programme for teachers in relation to health education is vital.

This Pilot Project also conducted a detailed enquiry into parental attitudes to social and health education in the primary school. The response indicated a very high level of parental interest and suggested that parents should be centrally involved in the development and implementation of primary school health education programmes.

The absolute numbers of births to teenagers outside of marriage increased by approximately 34% between 1980 and 1989, but there has been a decline of 35% in the total number of births to teenagers over this period. Only 10% of all teenage mothers in 1989 were married as against 60% in 1980 (Table 16).

According to the Principal Officer in the Department of Health with responsibility for the Health Promotion Unit the new structures make for a close working relationship between the Departments of Health and Education; he feels that the Health Education Bureau experienced difficulties because it had no statutory right of access to schools.

Department of Education/European Community Action Research Project

This Project, designed ‘to stimulate the interest and encourage the participation of girls in school activities related to the new technologies’, was directed by a Department of Education Inspector. It began in 1987 and four schools were involved at the pilot phase. The External Evaluation report concluded that ’The Project has developed a programme which has a good balance of practical and awareness raising activities and has been very effective in raising students’ (and especially girls’) awareness of gender issues. While it would be unrealistic to expect that a programme of such short duration could have significantly affected student behaviour in terms of career and subject choice, some positive outcomes have been observed in this regard’. The report goes on to identify the lessons learned from the pilot project at national and project level. It recommends that the programme be disseminated in a controlled manner to a cross-section of schools during 1990-91 in the context of whole school review and parental involvement.

The External Evaluation report on this Project includes the findings of research into teachers’ and parents’ attitudes to gender issues. While the overall teacher scores were non-sexist (and the number of male respondents was low) statistically significant gender differences did emerge in relation to some items, mainly to do with Science and Maths. The conclusions regarding parental attitudes include: parents were very positive about female participation in Metalwork, Woodwork and Drawing; parents were very non-sexist in their general attitudes; while the vast majority of parents thought that in general boys and girls should help with the same household jobs, girls seldom, if ever, do traditionally male jobs at home; parents are quite stereotyped when it comes to their daughters’ career choices; 40% of parents said that their daughters discussed the issue of mens’/womens’ work at home while 90% said that they talked about computers/technology at home; 90% of parents felt that their daughters should be encouraged at school to do non traditional jobs.

Physical Education

A report on research carried out by the Physical Education Association of Ireland on gender and physical education found that there is a link between physical education teaching in Irish post-primary schools and the reinforcement of gender role stereotypes. The research found that boys felt that they were superior to girls in a number of respects and that girls displayed an alarming tendency to be unhappy about important aspects of their bodies. It also found that an over-emphasis on competition increases sex differentiation in patterns of participation and that team games of a physical contact nature were regarded as being almost exclusively male.

TEACHER EDUCATION

A review of pre-service training has found that while gender issues appear in the curriculum of most of the institutions in an indirect or occasional fashion, no training institution can be said to have a coherent and systematic programme in gender issues. It also found that the existence of gender issues on the curriculum is related to the appointment of particular individuals with an intellectual commitment to these issues.

The Department of Education requires that attention be drawn in primary Colleges of Education to sexism and sex-stereotyping in the methodology of the core subjects, especially in relation to textbooks, and students’ awareness of sexist attitudes and practices is addressed.

The most significant development in relation to pre-service and In-Service Education has been the TENET Project. This is an E/C initiative; there are six TENET Projects in the Republic of Ireland and these are described in the report. The discernible common trend in all six projects - which appear to be generally very successful - consists of a focus on awareness raising and on a re-examination of traditional attitudes. One of the most interesting findings to date of external evaluation is that, when a sample of primary teachers were invited to rank seven educational issues in order of priority, gender equality was ranked as the top priority by only 2.5% of respondents. (Table 17)

With regard to Department of Education In-Service provision it is necessary to consider the primary and post-primary sectors independently. Since 1988 all in-service Summer courses at primary level have included a module on sexism and sex stereotyping. These modules were evaluated for the first time in 1990. The Department of Education’s own TENET project has clearly made an impact on policy implementation in that it has provided two ’dedicated’ INSET programmes (each of five days duration) in the North-West (one in 1989, one in 1990) as well as an in-service course on gender issues for members of the Primary School Inspectorate in 1990. It has also developed a two hour module on gender equality for use in all Department of Education INSET programmes and its dissemination plans include provision for a one day INSET programme for primary teachers at national level.

The tendency at post-primary level is for most INSET to be subject related. The most intensive INSET activity in relation to gender at second level was during 1984-86. Apart from an attempt at addressing gender issues in VPT (late 1988) and the work of the Transition and TENET projects operating at this level, there has been little activity at post-primary level since 1986.

Under the Irish Presidency of the E/C a statement issued on 31 May 1990 stresses the fundamental role that teachers have to play in the achievement of equality and emphasises the importance of pre and in-service training of teachers in this regard. (See Appendix 7).

The J.O.C. (1984) Report rightly drew attention to the general issue of levels of INSET provision. At primary level INSET expenditure has been consistently running at 0.03% of total expenditure during 1986-89; second level expenditure was 0.05% during 1986-88 and rose to 0.15% in 1989 because of the introduction of The Junior Certificate. There is a commitment in the recently published Programme for Economic and Social Progress to increase the financial allocation to INSET by some 60% for 1992 and by some 150% for 1993 and subsequent years.

GUIDANCE PROVISION

While the 1984 J.O.C. Report sought an increase in the number of guidance counsellors the 1983 cut backs have had quite the opposite effect. The main findings of the Report of the School Guidance Committee were that the time allocated to guidance and counselling is inadequate, that a large number of schools do not have a Guidance and Counselling Service and that the increase in subject teaching by guidance counsellors indicates that the guidance and counselling service is being diminished. It found that V.E.C. schools had been worst hit in this regard by the cut backs and it expressed concern that students in junior cycle were suffering insofar as senior cycle students were taking up most of the Guidance Counsellors’ time. This negative picture is confirmed by the available T.U.I. research, the 1988 E/C study on Educational and Vocational Guidance Services (Appendix 8), the Institute of Guidance Counsellors and by the 1990A.S.T.I. research.

Minister O’Rourke found it possible in February 1990 to allow a.p.t.r. retention rate of 19 : 1; this was directly aimed at making additional remedial/guidance teaching available to pupils. She has also announced her intention to arrange for the preparation of guidelines on the provision of guidance. The last two years have also seen the introduction by the Department of Education of Information Technology to the Guidance services.

The Programme for Economic and Social Progress provides for additional posts in disadvantaged areas and for 0.5 ex-quota recognition in schools in the 350-499 category. Some concessions have been made to schools in disadvantaged areas in the interim and 62 schools will benefit to the tune of 0.5 of a guidance teacher as a result of the 1992 Budget. Department officials have rightly pointed out that the significance of decisions taken by school managements in relation to the allocation of resources in response to the 1983 economies should not be overlooked.

The view of the Department of Education official with responsibility in this area that the role of the Guidance Counsellor in the school is being redefined has been referred to above already. The Final Report on the E/C’s Transition 11 series of projects suggests that guidance goes far beyond the provision of careers information to include new teaching/learning styles across the curriculum and the entire personal and social future of the young person. Arising out of these latter projects an Action Handbook - ’How to Implement Gender Equity’ was produced. This handbook was circulated to all schools by the Department of Education as part of the ’Equality pack’ in 1990.

AMALGAMATION OF SCHOOLS

Department of Education policy clearly favours rationalisation. Decisions had been taken regarding some thirty seven amalgamations as of April 1991 - of which sixteen have been implemented. There are a number of factors which militate against the implementation of a rationalisation policy: local opposition and lack of resources being the main ones.

The incidence of inter-institutional arrangements between second level schools is quite low. Insofar as can be ascertained only 24 schools were involved in some form of inter-institutional arrangements at junior cycle level during 1986/87 while 91 schools were engaged in such arrangements at senior cycle level - the great majority of such schools were secondary. The most significant levels of inter-change were in relation to Biology for boys and Physics and Higher Mathematics for girls.

The Intervention Project in Physics and Chemistry, directed by a Senior Inspector in the Department of Education and described at 5.3 in the report has, in the words of the External Evaluation report, ’been very successful in promoting Physics and Chemistry in girls’ schools which have not previously included these subjects on the curriculum’. This scheme continuous to expand to new regions. As pointed out by External Evaluation the mechanism being used is a most effective one which could be adopted for the promotion of other subjects also. This External Evaluation report, like the report on the ’Girls Into Technology’ Project stresses the importance of parental involvement and a ’whole school’ approach.

PUPIL/TEACHER RATIO

The 1984 report of the J.O.C. called for a lowering of the p.t.r. It is clear from Table 36 that the situation has disimproved significantly since 1983-84. As noted already some concessions were made recently in relation to retention rates and the Programme for Economic and Social Progress includes provision for further improvements with special provision for disadvantaged areas, a reduction in the pupil teacher ratio at primary and post-primary level and the removal of vice-principals from the quota in schools of 500+. The implementation of these proposals was begun in the 1992 Budget.

Managerial groups and teacher unions are very unhappy with the current situation and the findings of the Council of Managers of Secondary Schools, the A.S.T.I. and the T.U.I. on the adverse effects of these cut-backs are outlined in the report. Some of the main effects as reported in the research include: loss of subject options; reductions in guidance and remedial provision; reduced teacher/student contact time, increased class size. The provision of concessionary posts for second level schools in disadvantaged areas (see Table 39) has helped to alleviate some of the worst effects but the implications of the cut-backs for increased female participation levels in non-traditional subject areas and for the provision of a broader range of options in schools are significant.

Considerable resources have been made available, in the context of the Programme for National Recovery, to primary schools in disadvantaged areas (see 6.4) and to the disadvantaged in general (6.5) and this commitment is also reflected in the Programme for Economic and Social Progress and in the 1992 Budget.

TRAINING COURSES

The 1984 J.O.C. Report referred to the discrepancy between the ratio of males to females assessed as technically suited for apprenticeships and the ratio of males to females registered for the first time on the basis of the 1983 figures; there has been a significant improvement in these ratios since 1987 (see Table 40) although there is still a huge amount of ground to make up. It is now common practice to invite all females applicants for interview regardless of their test results. FÁS has suggested that comparisons between 1989 and earlier years are inappropriate because of the recent requirements for a high level of Company sponsorship: the proportion of AnCo/FÁS sponsored apprentices has dropped from 63% of the total in 1984 to just 30% in 1989 while there was a decline of 14% in the total number of apprentices over the same period (Table 45). A higher level of Company sponsorship was proposed as a solution to the problem of placing AnCo/FÁS sponsored apprentices (Table 42) by the Manager of the FÁS centre on which the case study on the placement of female apprentices (see 7.1.4) is based. Company sponsored apprentices do not undergo the AnCo/FÁS selection procedures.

The overall proportion of female apprentices reached 1% for the first time in 1989. The special pilot initiative in six centres (See 7.1.3) was clearly effective in increasing female participation in 1987 but there was a sharp decline again in 1988 when the M : F ratio increased from 16 : 1 to 95 : 1 (Table 46). The FÁS Action Plan has moved away from pilot programmes in this area towards the use of target setting and pre-apprenticeship training as strategies for increasing the participation of women in apprenticeships. They have set a target of 10% female participation in apprenticeships in their 1989 Discussion Document.

The efforts made to counter sexism in relation to Community Training Workshops, Skills Foundation Courses and The Teamwork Programme are outlined at 7.3 while the lack of any real progress in the training area, as identified in the 1987 report 50 : 50 Is not Equality, is also spelled out. A somewhat similar situation obtains in the case of the expanding V.P.T. programme (although there are no recent data on gender available). Some attempts at collaboration between education and training agencies have taken place in the context of Transition 11 (SPIRAL), the PETRA Project and Youthreach (launched in October 1988). The latter initiative is a national one (as against a pilot project) which incorporates specially designed VPT programmes, FÁS Youth Skills Programmes and Community Training Workshops. While gender issues are addressed in the design of all of these programmes it has not been possible to include data on the implementation of Youthreach. The New Technology Workshop has been attempting to tackle the extreme gender segregation in the Irish electronics industry.

The Positive Action Programme in Favour of Women, published by FÁS in 1990, contains proposals for increasing female participation in sectors of the labour market traditionally dominated by men and for promoting female participation ’in future-oriented sectors of the labour market’. The programme identifies actions to be taken in relation to statistics/FÁS literature, curriculum and staff development, examination of barriers to womens’ participation in FÁS programmes and the promotion of equal opportunities. It includes proposals for an increase in the level of female participation in apprenticeships: the target for female first year off-the-job apprentices in 1990 is 2.7%.

The programme proposes the introduction of bursaries, an induction process and collaboration with local industry to try to secure placement and employment for female apprentices. Each FÁS region has nominated at least one specific skills course per Training Centre for special focus in terms of achieving higher levels of female participation. The programme identifies targets for female participation in a range of other training initiatives, some of which e.g. ’Return to Work’ are specifically aimed at women. Gender equity will also be an issue in relation to both FÁS employment services under the Social Employment Scheme and FÁS services to industry - this will include attempts to have employers sponsor more female apprentices.

ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION

The 1983 Report of the Commission on Adult Education, Lifelong Learning, identified the major impediments to the development of adult education - inadequate resources, little research, poor articulation with mainstream formal education, concentration on night-time classes (see Table 48), little use of modern technological developments, the unfair demands on Adult Education Organisers, the limited powers of the relevant statutory Sub-Committees and the constraints on the non-statutory groups involved.

There has been a significant increase in Government spending on adult literacy provision during the period 1985-90 and in actual participation rates since 1982. The Vocational Training Opportunity Scheme (VTOS) (formerly the Educational Opportunity Scheme) was providing a total of 660 places in 24 centres as of August 1990; there is provision for the further extension of this scheme by 500 participants in the 1992 Budget. This scheme provides a possible ladder to third level for those seeking a second chance while the N.C.E.A. has introduced a credit system to facilitate re-entry to degree and sub-degree programmes.

The Programme for Economic and Social Progress (P.E.S.P.) includes a commitment to the further development of the VTOS and the Youthreach Scheme for early school leavers as well as other literacy and community programmes. The Area-Based strategy, aimed at long-term unemployed, will provide educational and training programmes, initially on a pilot basis. The P.E.S.P. also includes a commitment to the provision of ’end-on skill training’ which will provide second chance education for those who leave school prematurely as well as facilitating mature students - for whom special proposals are also included in the Programme.

68% of the 108,500 participants in adult education courses during 1988-89 were women: this represents an increase of 5% over the previous year. Some £9m was spent by the Department and the V.E.C.s on adult education provision during 1990 (exclusive of non-pay costs). This represents a significant increase over previous years.

The research conducted by AONTAS (using postal questionnaires) in relation to Adult Education provision during 1989 and 1988 (see 8.4) presents a gloomy picture regarding the effects of the cut-backs, suggesting that provision declined during this period. The official picture (see Tables 47, 48) is rather more positive. There is a general acceptance to-day that the situation has been improving, albeit from a low base.

Within this context the significant growth in the level of daytime provision for adults, especially women, is noteworthy - women’s education has been described by AONTAS as ’the most vibrant, dynamic and innovative area of education’. There were 44 day time groups in existence in January 1990. The members of such groups often have to make their own practical arrangements such as creche facilities - absolutely vital - and accommodation. Such groups have been supported by The Combat Poverty Agency since 1987: it was announced by the Minister for Social Welfare in September 1990 that almost 200 community projects run by women will be grant aided. This report includes an account of the experience of the Combat Poverty Agency in relation to 18 such programmes: the main message is that this is an area where small amounts of money make a lot of difference. The Agency’s report also illustrates the important differences between women’s programmes and conventional educational programmes; it identifies personal development as the main achievement of the programmes and suggests that there is also a spin-off effect for the wider community.

The 1984 J.O.C. Report had recommended that the provision of creches or day nurseries should be a condition for the granting of planning permission for such schemes. Dublin Corporation has made units of accommodation available for such activity and it is left to the tenants and mothers to organise these units. This seems to be exceptional however and there is the added complication that child care is a matter, not for the Department of the Environment, but for the Department of Health. There has been a significant reduction in the provision of new local authority housing of late; it was planned to build only 1,000 - 1,300 such houses in the whole country during 1989.

The 1984 J.O.C. report expressed concern regarding Leaving Certificate fees for mature students. Since 1989/90 candidates sitting less than three subjects are not required to pay the full fee (see Table 49).

A scheme was introduced in 1985 and amended subsequently whereby mature women receive a grant of £1,000 per annum in respect of participation in approved third level courses on condition that they have successfully completed one year of study. There are currently twenty places on offer under this scheme.

Latest available figures (Table 50) put the proportions of educational broadcasting on radio and television at 0.8% and 0.5% respectively. Lack of finance for such broadcasting is the issue. The Head of Educational Programmes at R.T.E. sees the introduction of a dedicated fourth FM channel as the only solution.

The Radio and Television Act (1985) makes no requirements on those who get licences for Community Radio to provide educational type programmes: it does lay down a basic minimum of time for news and current affairs type programmes.

POSITION OF WOMEN TEACHERS

While women outnumber men by more than three to one in primary teaching there are more male than female principals: four out of every ten men in primary teaching are principals as against one out of every ten women. Men are far more likely than women to apply for a principalship at both primary and second levels but there has been a steady and significant growth in the proportion of women applying at primary level and more women than men applied for the period July-December 1989.

At second level lay women are significantly under-represented at principal level; they are also under represented at all other levels of responsibility (see Tables 53, 57). Of the 78 lay principalships filled in secondary schools since 1986, 63 have gone to men: on the basis of data provided by the JMB only 5% of the applicants for such posts were women (Table 58, 59). Notwithstanding the predominance of female graduates in education an ASTI Survey has found that, between 1986 and 1988, men were nearly three times more likely than women to get permanent teaching jobs.

In research published in March 1991 the ASTI identified significant differences between men and women in the motivation that they bring to teaching and in their career goals. They found that men were far more likely to apply for a principalship and they identified a number of factors which discourage women from applying for promotion - lack of confidence, family responsibilities, absence of child care facilities, the attitude of management, additional administrative responsibilities. One of the most interesting findings of the ASTI research is the widespread perception on the part of teachers and principals - both male and female - that men are at an advantage in the promotion stakes.

Within the Department of Education Inspectorate the proportion of women is 16%; with one exception they are all working at recruitment level (Table 60). This is commented on in the OECD Report on Ireland. Data on the constitution of V.E.C.’s by gender were not available.

The Higher Education Authority’s Report (1987) found that women form a low percentage of total full-time academic staff at third-level and that they are poorly represented in the senior lecturing grades (Table 62). Female academics are concentrated in the Humanities faculties and are less likely than males to apply for vacancies at each level; there is a concentration of women in the junior lecturing grades and the proportions of female part-time staff are significantly higher than the corresponding ones for full-time staff. Women were found to be less mobile than men and fewer women than men were registered for post-graduate study. The earnings of women in third level are considerably lower than those of men.

INTERVIEW BOARDS

Selection Boards for the posts of Principal and Assistant Teacher at primary level consist of three persons, at least one of whom must be female. The Department of Education has published a Handbook in relation to such appointments: the guidelines require that selection committees must set out criteria and award marks and that discriminatory questions relating to gender/marital status should not be asked. The I.N.T.O. is happy with the guidelines but unhappy with, as they see it, the failure to monitor their implementation. They are calling for a delay in the sanction of posts for ten days, a monitoring procedure, professional criteria for the selection of Selection Board members, special training for them and inservice training in administration for teachers.

There are no stipulations regarding the gender of Selection Board members at second level in any of the three sectors. Data regarding the gender make up of actual Selection Boards are difficult to come by: the findings of a T.U.I. survey (relating to the period 1980-86) suggest that 90% of respondents were interviewed by a predominantly male board and that 2/3 of interviewees had faced an all male board. Recent ASTI research found that male and female principals were satisfied with appointment procedures. Women were more strongly in favour of certain interventions designed to encourage fairness in competitions for promotions than men e.g. having a balance of men and women on selection committees.

The Employment Equality Agency’s Code of Practice has been issued to the management bodies of all post primary schools by the Department of Education. The two second-level Teacher Unions are in the process of negotiating codes of practice with the relevant management bodies: they have reached agreement with the relevant umbrella management groups (JMB for secondary schools and IVEA for Vocational Schools) and have been negotiating with individual Boards of Management and individual V.E.C.’s respectively.

The ASTI agreement stipulates that job application forms should not contain questions about marital status, number of children or other personal matters. It also states that the records of interview committees should be kept to ensure adherence to equality legislation and that all advertisements for teaching posts must stipulate that the school is an equal opoortunity employer.

At third level the Report of the Higher Education Authority (1987) found that 98.5% of all candidates reported that they had been interviewed by a board which was all or predominantly male. There was very little evidence of discriminatory questions at such interviews. Significantly more women than men were found in this study to see gender as influencing promotion prospects. The report concludes that, while there is no evidence of overtly discriminatory rules and procedures in relation to third level appointments, there are significant imbalances between the sexes among academic staff.

CONCLUSIONS

In attempting to monitor progress over the last six years it is proposed in this section to identify

(i) PROGRESS

*education policy;

*curriculum;

*teacher education;

*training;

*adult education provision;

*teacher appointments;

*provision for the disadvantaged;

Education Policy

(a)The publication by the Department of Education of its first policy statement on gender equity in March 1990 is an important milestone in the promotion of equality.

(b)The Department of Education has a clear commitment to rationalisation of the schooling system. The natural consequence of this policy is an increase in the incidence of co-educational schooling. Indeed it is clear from this report that participation rates in co-educational schooling have been rising at both primary and post-primary levels; a special Project has been commissioned by the Department of Education to identify and remedy problems in co-educational schools.

The recent ESRI study, The Quality of Their Education found that co-ed schools were particularly effective in promoting personal and social development.

(c)A number of official measures have been put in place by the Department of Education (see 1.5 below) to combat inequality/sexism. These include the issuing of Guidelines to publishers in relation to sexism in school textbooks.

Curriculum

(a)The Minister for Education included gender equity as one of the terms of reference of the N.C.C.A. in 1991. The Council has identified gender equity as a cross curricular theme in the Junior Certificate

(b)It was proposed in June 1991 by the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment that each junior cycle student be required to take a Science or Technology subject and this was followed by a more recent proposal that both Science and Technology form part of the core curriculum at junior cycle.

(c)There has been a dramatic increase in the number of girls’ schools providing Physics and a modest increase in the number of such schools providing Higher Mathematics at Leaving Certificate level - notwithstanding the drop of 8% in the total number of girls’ schools during the period 1981-88.

The provision rates for Home Economics (S & S), Higher Mathematics and Physics at Leaving Certiicate in mixed schools have improved dramatically over this period.

(d)Sexism in the allocation of subjects in mixed schools has almost disappeared with the notable exceptions of Engineering/Metalwork, Construction Studies/Woodwork, Mechanical/Technical Drawing and Home Economics.

(e)Leaving Certificate students are now less stereotyped in their choice of Physics (particularly) and Higher Maths than they were in the early eighties but significant gender differences remain in relation to these and some other subjects. Girls are choosing business subjects in significant proportions, apparently at the expense of the Humanities.

(f)The participation rates of young women in the Aer Lingus young Scientist Competition have been higher than those of young men but they have not been proportionately represented amongst the prize winners.

(g)Successful pilot projects have taken place at post-primary level in relation to the increased participation of girls in

(h)A new technology programme was introduced at junior cycle in 1989; it is being provided in girls’ schools and in schools attended by girls as well as in boys’ schools.

(i)Some of the syllabus changes introduced in the Junior Certificate may help with the preparation of young people for life. This aim has been addressed more directly by the Transition I and II Projects and in VPT and TYO. The promised introduction of a six year cycle at second level should facilitate this process.

(j)Both the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment and the Primary Curriculum Review Committee favour a cross-curricular approach to health (including sex) education. The Department of Eduction guidelines on Sex Education emphasise the primary responsibility of parents in this area.

(k)A pilot project on the provision of guidance a Psychological Service in primary schools has been put in place.

(l)A pilot project on Health Education at primary level has been taking place in the Mid West since 1985.

Teacher Education

(a)Gender issues are dealt with in all pre-service training programmes for primary teachers.

(b)The six Irish TENET Projects dealing with gender issues in pre and in-service Teacher Education, have made a significant contribution to INSET provision.

(c)Since 1988 all Summer in-service courses for primary teachers must include a module on sexism and sex stereotyping; the Department’s own TENET project developed a two hour module for this purpose in 1990.

(d)The statement on gender equity issued in May 1990 under the Irish Presidency of the E/C emphasised the importance of addressing gender issues during the pre and in-service training of teachers.

Training

(a)There has been an improvement in the ratio of male to female apprentices registered for the first time with FÁS during 1987-9. A target of 10% female participation has been set and the strategy of pre-apprenticeship training is being introduced in an attempt to achieve this target.

(b)FÁS published its Positive Action Programme in Favour of Women in 1990; it contains a wide range of proposals for action.

(c)Strategies to counter sex stereotyping are incorporated in FÁS Training programmes and in some joint Education/Labour initiatives.

Adult Education

(a)There has been a significant increase in Government spending on adult literacy provision during 1985-90 and on adult education generally during 1989-90.

(b)The Vocational Training Opportunity Scheme (formerly the Educational Opportunity Scheme) which provides a ladder to third level is being extended on an on-going basis.

(c)A grants scheme for mature women third level students was introduced in 1985.

(d)There has been a significant growth in the level of daytime provision for adults, especially women. Such programmes are particularly effective in promoting personal development.

(e)Candidates wishing to sit the Leaving Certificate in less than three subjects are no longer required to pay the full examination fee.

Appointment of Teachers

(a)The Department of Education has published a Handbook in relation to the appointment of principals and Assistant Teachers at primary level.

(b)The Employment Equality Agency’s Code of Practice has been issued to the management bodies of all post primary schools by the Department. The second level Teacher Unions are in the process of finalising Codes of Practice with the relevant Management bodies.

(c)The I.V.E.A. has organised a series of Seminars dealing with non-discriminatory interview techniques for members of Selection Boards.

Provision for the Disadvantaged

(a)The 1984 Report of the J.O.C. expressed concern for the disadvantaged in general. The present report outlines the measures introduced to cater for the disadvantaged under the Programme for National Recovery. This provision includes the measures referred to at 2.1.5.1 - 2.1.5.3 above; it also includes provision for primary schools in disadvantaged areas (6.4 below) and for the disadvantaged in general (6.5 below).

This commitment is also evident in the provisions of the 1990 Programme for Economic and Social Progress.

(ii) OUTSTANDING ISSUES

*education policy

*curriculum

*the effects of the cut-backs

*in-service provision

*training

*adult education provision

*teacher appointments

Education Policy

(a)The adoption of a policy does not cost nearly as much as its implementation; the implementation of the recently announced policy on gender equity is worth monitoring.

(b)While the 1984 J.O.C. Report strongly favours co-education the international research suggests that girls may be disadvantaged in mixed schools. For this reason the findings of the GEAR Project will be of particular interest.

(c)In relation to sexism in textbooks the Cursaí Chomhrá programme in primary schools presents a particular problem. Considerations of cost have delayed the revision of this programme which everybody accepts as sexist. The Report of the Review Body on the Primary Curriculum does not address this particular issue. Yet the imminent publication of that report was offered as one of the main reasons (apart from consideration of cost) for inactivity in relation to these materials.

Other related issues to be addressed include a mechanism for monitoring the implementation of the guidelines; the withdrawing textbooks published before the publication of the guidelines; the issue of sexism in non-prescribed textbooks - the only prescribed textbooks at second level are literary works - and the issue of sexism in state examination papers.

(d)The history of recent curriculum development in the Republic of Ireland suggests that the dissemination of effective projects and of the lessons learned from less successful ones is a slow process.

(e)Notwithstanding the Department’s desire for rationalisation the level of inter-institutional co-operation between schools during 1986/87 was low.

(f)While decisions had been taken regarding thirty seven amalgamations only sixteen had been implemented up to April 1991.

Curriculum

(a)The issue of gender equity has not been addressed by the Primary Education Review Body or the Primary Curriculum Review Body although the latter body was requested by the Minister to do so. It was included in the terms of reference of the N.C.C.A. for the first time in 1991.

(b)Unlike many other education systems we did not have the framework for a common core curriculum at second level until very recently (June 1991). Where such a core includes science and technology - as it does in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland and as is now being suggested here - all young people up to the end of compulsory schooling are required to take these subjects.

(c)There is clear evidence of stereotyping in relation to the provision, allocation and choice of certain science and practical subjects at Leaving Certificate level and of certain practical subjects at Intermediate level. Student choice accounts for gender differences in participation rates more than subject provision or allocation.

(d)The proportion of participating boys who achieved As or Bs in Higher Level Leaving Certificate papers in Mathematics/Science/Technical subjects was greater than the proportion of girls achieving these grades; the proportion of boys achieving A’s or B’s was also higher in most cases. The differences are statistically highly significant in the case of Leaving Certificate Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry for 1989 and 1990 and also in the case of Higher level Intermediate Mathematics (1990).

(e)While boys’ and girls’ achievements in Mathematics are on a par at age 9, boys are scoring significantly higher than girls in Mathematics at age 13. Boys perform significantly better than girls at both 9 and 13.

(f)More support is required for whole school review and school management if schools as organisations are to review their policies on gender issues.

(g)The regulations for the Vocational Leaving Certificate effectively rule out participation by girls.

(h)The Junior Certificate Technology programme has been designed mainly by men: there has been no attempt, to date, to take gender issues on board in related INSET programmes. Information regarding the gender of teacher and student participants in this programme was not available to the author.

(i)Recent research into the hidden curriculum of Irish second-level schools highlights the bias towards the technical development of the individual, the competitive individualism of relations between pupils and the lack of student autonomy. It also found that the ethos of boys’ schools encourages instrumental goals whereas that of girls’ schools promotes both affective and academic development in a seemingly contradictory manner.

(j)The 1984 J.O.C. Report expressed concern about preparation for life. The Second Transition from School to Adult and Working Life series of projects ended in 1987 - no attempt has been made to disseminate the programmes developed by these projects. At junior cycle level the proposal for a new subject ’Social and Political Studies’ - which had been shelved - is currently being re-examined.

(k)As we shall see later the cut-backs have reduced guidance and counselling provision in schools; in this context the role of the Guidance Counsellor needs to be re-appraised. There is an urgent need to respond to the issues of child sex abuse, drug abuse, emotional disturbance and the lack of specialist counselling in a coherent and systematic manner. The establishment of a primary schools psychological service on a pilot basis in 1989/90 is a welcome development.

(l)While female participation rates in third level education are increasing at a faster rate than those of males there is clear evidence of sex stereotyping in relation to fields of study (with the exception of Dentistry and Medicine).

(m)The 1984 Report of the Joint Committee expressed concern about the incidence of teenage pregnancies in the context of preparation for life; there has been an increase of 34% in the absolute numbers of births to teenagers outside of marriage between 1980 and 1989 with a similar decline in the total number of births to teenagers over this period.

(n)A recent ESRI study found that civic and politcal education was given a very low priority rating and a very low satisfaction rating by school leavers.

The effects of the cut-backs of the eighties

(a)The available research suggests that the time allocated to guidance and counselling is inadequate, that a large number of schools do not have such a service and that guidance counsellors are being required to do more subject teaching. It appears that V.E.C. schools have been most seriously affected by the cut-backs and that junior cycle students are losing out more than senior cycle students.

The Programme for Economic and Social Progress includes a commitment to improving guidance provision and steps are included in the 1992 Budget which will help restore guidance provision to what it was prior to the middle eighties..

(b)Notwithstanding some recent concessions the pupil/teacher ratio in second level schools has disimproved significantly since 1984 with an attendant loss of subject options for students: the achievement of gender equity requires an increase in subject options. Remedial provision has also been affected. Again the Programme for Economic and Social Progress includes concessions in regard to p.t.r. and the 1992 Budget will make for an improvement.

(c)As a general comment it should be recognised that the reduction in guidance and remedial provision as a result of cut-backs in the mid 1980’s resulted from the re-allocation of existing resources within schools in accordance, one can only presume, with the priorities of management in those schools.

(d)There was a decline in adult education provision as a result of the cut-backs during 1987-88 but this has been arrested and the Programme for Economic and Social Progress includes proposals for further action in this area.

InService Provision

(a)There has been very little INSET in relation to gender at post-primary level since 1986 with the exception of that provided by the TENET and Transition II Projects.

(b)The 1984 J.O.C. Report referred in general to the need for increased levels of INSET. Apart from the additional cost incurred in relation to the Junior Certificate in 1989-90 expenditure on INSET has accounted for some 0.04% of total education spending at first and second levels during recent years.

This is set to increase by some 60% for 1992 and by some 150% for 1993 and subsequent years as a result of the Programme for Economic and Social Progress.

Training

(a)Notwithstanding recent improvements, the overall ratio of female apprentices was barely 1% for 1989 - the highest yet.

(b)The move towards more Company sponsored apprentices may ameliorate the problem of placement for female apprentices: placement has been a problem for AnCo/FÁS sponsored apprentices in the past.

(c)The most recent research available suggests that choices of vocational designations in VPT are very stereotyped.

Adult Education Provision

(a)Levels of educational broadcasting on RTE are very low due to lack of resources.

(b)The Radio and Television Act (1985) does not require licencees to provide educational type programmes on Community Radio.

(c)Only Dublin Corporation has made units of accommodation in new housing schemes available for creche facilities: there has, at any rate, been a significant reduction in the provision of local authority housing.

(a)Women are significantly under-represented in almost all posts of responsibility at primary and post-primary level: the imbalance is particularly evident at the level of principal.

(b)Men are far more likely than women to apply for a principalship at both primary and post-primary levels although there have been significant improvements at primary level. A number of reasons for this reluctance have been identified in recent ASTI research.

(c)Between 1986 and 1988 men were, according to a recent ASTI survey, nearly three times more likely than women to get permanent teaching jobs.

(d)There appears to be a widespread perception, on the part of teachers and principals according to recent ASTI research, that men are at an advantage in the promotion stakes.

(e)16% of the Department’s Inspectorate are women; with one exception all are working at recruitment level.

(f)At third level women form a low percentage of total full-time academic staff and they are poorly represented in the senior lecturing grades and in post-graduate studies. They are concentrated in the Humanities, in junior lecturing grades and in part-time work and are less likely than males to seek promotion. Lack of mobility and lower participation rates than males in post-graduate work are identified as constraints.

1. EDUCATION POLICY

Two issues are raised in the 1984 Report of the Joint Oireachtas Committee under this heading: co-education and sexism in school text-books.

1.1 CO-EDUCATION

1.1.1 Co-Education: The Present Position

All new primary schools continue to be co-educational. In her Budget speech for 1988 the Minister for Education, Mary O’Rourke, T.D., stressed the importance of educational planning:

“We must ensure that this expenditure is spent in the most efficient and effective way in order to cater as fully as possible for the varying aptitudes and abilities of all pupils and to provide equality of educational opportunity for all children. In order to do so we must avoid any unnecessary duplication of resources whether human or physical”.

“Priority will continue to be given to measures to promote equality of opportunity in education in all fields and at all levels of the education system”.

In relation to the post primary sector, the Minister said in her 1988 Budget speech:

“Where new schools are required or where replacement buildings are necessary every effort will be made to ensure that there will not be unnecessary duplication of expensive resources and physical facilities. With declining enrolment there are sound educational, social and economic arguments for the development of new initiatives in local communities in the area of educational cooperation and indeed amalgamation. It is by such initiatives that post-primary schools/communities will be able to offer a satisfactory range of subject options for their full-time pupils and adult education programmes that meet the needs of the community.

It is my intention to ensure that my Department will place greater emphasis in future on the need to achieve greater cooperation between schools in a particular community. With a view to rationalising educational provision at second level priority will be given to projects in areas where there is evidence of local initiatives representative of all educational interests relating to amalgamation or the shared use of resources”.

This was repeated in the Minister’s Dáil Address on the Draft Estimates on December 1st, 1989:

“Rationalisation and cost-effectiveness are now key features of my policy on the provision of post-primary schools”.

This point is further underlined in a report submitted to the United Nations Secretariat on 18 February 1987 entitled First Report by Ireland on the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.

“The Planning Section in the Department of Education continues to promote the establishment of co-educational post-primary schools as part of its rationalisation programme under the Programme for Action 1984-87…. Proposals for new post-primary schools are encouraged by the Planning Section on a co-educational basis”.

Wherever possible new post-primary schools are co-educational. Local conditions are sometimes unfavourable e.g. there are three post-primary schools in a town and new buildings were provided recently in the case of two but the third is in urgent need of replacement. The mood within the Department of Education is clearly one of rationalisation (See 5.1 below). The Report to the United Nations referred to above states:

“The Planning Section of the Department of Education, when assessing school building requirements and applications for improvement etc., raises with management authorities the possibilities of extended co-operation between schools, the amalgamation of schools and the development of resource centres in catchment areas”.

The total number of post primary schools has remained relatively stable over the period 1980-89 (this is the last year for which statistics have been published) but up until 1987-88 there has been a slight increase - almost year by year - in the number of co-educational schools with an attendant fall off in the number of single sex schools. (See Table 1 below). When one looks at school type the same pattern emerges; some growth in the numbers of community and vocational schools and some decline in the number of secondary schools (See Table 2 below).

The data presented in Table 3 below suggests that the increased numbers of students in post-primary schools since 1980 are being accommodated in mixed schools - the figures for 1988-89 show a small drop in the total numbers for the first time in the decade. The population of girls’ schools has remained quite static, there has been a slight drop in the population of boys’ schools and there has been a steady and significant increase in the population of mixed schools. The populations of vocational schools and community schools have shown the greatest increases in the period 1980-88 according to Table 4. In the light of Table 3 it is reasonable to conclude that the increase for secondary schools is accounted for by mixed secondary schools.

As can be seen from Table 5 there has been a slight but steady growth in the ratio of mixed primary schools between 1980 and 1989; 77.25% of primary schools were mixed in 1989 as against 75% in 1980. For purposes of these calculations boys’ and girls’ schools with Mixed Infants have been categorised as single sex schools. There are, in any case, very few boys’ schools of this type; the numbers of girls’ schools in this category have been declining also.

38% of primary school students attended single sex schools in 1988-89. There has been a significant increase in the ratio of boys and girls attending mixed primary schools since 1980 (See Table 6). 62.8% of all boys and 60.5% of all girls attended mixed primary schools in 1988-89 as against 53.2% and 51.5% respectively in 1980-81. (Again boys’ and girls’ schools with Mixed Infants have been categorised as single sex schools for purposes of this analysis). While the total population of primary schools continued to rise until 1986 the numbers attending single sex schools have declined

Second Level School Populations by Gender Category of School
(including Transition Yr. and VPTP)

Raw data on the distribution of post-primary students by gender category of school is presented in Table 8.1. below. The ratios of males and females in mixed and single sex schools have been derived from these figures and are presented in Table 8.2 below. Some interesting facts emerge:

(1)Girls are less likely than boys to attend a mixed second level school. In 1988-89 53% of girls as against 42% of boys attended single sex post-primary schools.

(2)Significantly more boys now attend a mixed second level school than a boys’ school while there are 1.1 girls in every girls’ school for every girl in a mixed school - this latter ratio has changed significantly from 1.6 in 1980-81 to 1.1 in 1988-89.

1.1.2 The On-Going Debate About Co-Education

The First Report of the Joint Committee on Women’s Rights (1984) showed a clear commitment to co-education on educational and social grounds. The Programme for Action in Education 1984-87 stated that:

“Educating children of both sexes together is more in keeping with the concept of equality between the sexes and provides a better basis for developing co-operative but equal roles for men and women in adult life”.

While it is generally accepted that a co-educational experience is beneficial for boys in terms of their social and personal development, there is a significant amount of research evidence which suggests that girls fare better academically and socially in single sex schools. While it is not necessary that the findings of international (and

TABLE 8.1 : Distribution of Boys/Girls by Mixed/Single Sex Schools at post primary level.

In 1988-89 47.6% of all post-primary pupils attended single sex schools as against 57.8% in 1980-81.

TABLE 8.2 : Ratio of Boys/Girls in Mixed/Single Sex Schools at Post Primary Level

NOTE: The situation is somewhat different at Senior Cycle where the ratios were as follows for 1987-88:

Boys in Mixed Schools: Boys in Single Sex (’87-’88) = 1 :0.94 (’88-’89) = 1 : 0.93

Girls in Mixed Schools: Girls in Single Sex (’87-’88) = 1:1.35 (’88-’89) = 1 : 1.32

particularly U.K.) research will be replicated in this jurisdiction, it is reasonable to apply their conclusions to our situation until contrary findings are available in this jurisdiction.⁽¹⁾ Some of the main points raised by these researchers include:

*Girls are more reluctant to choose non-traditional subjects in a mixed class situation.

*Boys tend to use girls as negative reference points thus compounding stereotyping.

*Girls are subjected to sexual and physical harassment in co-educational situations.

The Gender Equity Action Research Project (GEAR) began in September 1989. This Project, which is being undertaken by the Educational Research Centre at St. Patrick’s College, Drumcondra, represents the first systematic attempt to research gender issues at school level in the Republic of Ireland. The following description of the Project was provided by the Department of Education.

“The aim of the project is to involve teachers in primary and post-primary schools, students and their parents in the search for solutions to the problem of gender-related differences in education. The project has five objectives:

(a)to assess the current situation in terms of the extent to which schools, both single-sex and co-educational, are gender-fair in policy and practice.

(b)to find out the extent to which the expectations of parents are gender stereotyped with regard to (i) educational provision; and (ii) familial and occupational roles

(c)to create awareness among students, their parents and teachers of gender bias, where it may be found in school and how it may affect girls and boys;

(e)to monitor and report on the progress of schools and to identify strategies which could be disseminated to schools generally.

The action research project started in September 1989 and the final phase was expected to be completed in 1991. The project was commissioned against a background of international research indicating that girls fare better academically in single sex schools than in mixed schools. The purpose of the action research is to find out whether there are differences in policy and classroom practices in single sex and co-educational schools and to identify practices which combat gender bias. The aim therefore is to seek to identify and remedy existing problems rather than abandon the principle of co-education”. No report had been published up to March 1992.

The recently published ESRI study, The Quality of Their Education, found that

“when we examine the percentage of young people very satisfied with the personal and social development aspect of their education by type of school, a definite pattern does emerge. Ex-pupils of single sex schools are consistently less satisfied with each dimension of their personal and social development education than ex-pupils of co-educational schools… what is important in boosting satisfaction … is the opportunities offered for interaction between the sexes in the school environment. It is interesting too that the most stark differences relate to the question regarding relations with the opposite sex - 3% of pupils from girls’ Secondary and 10% from boys’ Secondary schools are highly satisfied, while at the other end of the spectrum 36% of pupils from co-ed Secondary schools are satisfied that their education helped them build good relations with members of the opposite sex”.

1.1.3 The Committee’s Recommendation

“All new schools be fully co-educational i.e. pupils to be taught together in the same classroom, with equality of subject availability and take up. The Department of Education should establish the necessary structures to accelerate the implementation of such a policy without further delay”.

The Department of Education is committed to a policy of rationalisation which will ensure that all new schools will be co-educational as far as possible. As we shall see at 2.2 below in relation to curriculum, the latest information on equality of subject availability and take up suggests that good progress is being made in the case of some subjects while the status quo remains in the case of other subjects.

1.2 SEXISM IN SCHOOL TEXT BOOKS

The impact of reading schemes can be particularly strong in conditioning younger children to adopt sex roles. Studies of primary school reading schemes have shown the following patterns:

“Males out numbered females, boys created things, showed initiative, were brave and strong. Girls were dependent, small and fearful. Adult males were shown as job-holders and fathers but adult females were either job holders or mothers. The female job-holders in the most extensive study (Sheils) made up 9.9% of women, males 100%. The women who worked outside the home were school teachers, shop assistants, nurses and queens (the wives of kings rather than sovereigns)”.⁽²⁾

The Joint Oireachtas Committee on Women’s Rights took cognisance of the resulting ‘wrong perceptions implanted in the young impressionable minds of boys and girls’ in its 1984 report. It noted that guidelines on sexism and sex stereotyping in primary school text books had been issued to publishers arising out of the Programme for Action in Education 1984-87. Reference is made to this issue in each of the Annual Progress Reports published by the Department of Education in relation to the Programme:

“Agreement has been reached with publishers on guidelines to eliminate sexism and sex-stereotyping from school text books’ (The First Year) A Progress Report).

The guidelines agreed between the Department and publishers regarding the avoidance of sexism and sex stereotyping in school text-books are being taken into account in the revision and assessment of texts and curricular materials’ (1985 Progress Report).

Guidelines have been agreed between the Department and publishers on the need to avoid sexism and sex-sterotyping in school textbooks. These guidelines are being followed by publishersin all textbooks for primary school use” (Progress Report 1986).

In the recent official report entitled “The Development of Equal Opportunities, March 1987 - September 1988 : Co-ordinated Report” the section on Education includes the following reference to this issue:

6.4. Guidelines for publishers on the need to avoid sexism and sex) stereotyping in school textbooks are issued by the Department of Education and must be followed in order for a publisher to have a text book sanctioned for inclusion in the list of approved textbooks for use in primary school’.

The following information on the issue of sexism in school text-books has been supplied by the Department of Education in April 1990:

“In 1984/85 agreement was reached with Irish publishers of textbooks on guidelines based on those of the International Reading Association for evaluating sex-stereotyping in reading materials. Only textbooks which comply with the guidelines have been added to the approved list since for use in national schools. The problem of sexist/sex-stereotyping in textbooks seems to relate to those approved before the guidelines were introduced and specifically to the Cursaí Chomhrá Gaeilge, a set of courses designed by the Department for each standard in national schools accompanied by teachers’ handbooks, filmstrips, tapes and deilbhíní (cut-out figures) introduced in 1968 based on the audiovisual linguistic teaching method following scientific research carried out in the period up to the late 1960’s. The Cúrsaí were revised in 1974-78 (Standards I - VI) and 1981-82 (infant standards), with teacher representation on the committees, when sexism and sex-stereotyping in primary education was not a prominent issue. However, it has been acknowledged that major parts of the Cúrsaí Comhrá Gaeilge do reinforce the traditional roles of men and women and boys and girls. In 1985 the INTO requested the establishment of a working party to make recommendations on the elimination of sexism in textbooks on a phased basis within a five year period.

A review of the Cúrsaí Comhrá was carried out by the Department’s Inspectorate and while it acknowledged that the Cúrsaí were laden with examples of sex-stereotyping, it recommended that the courses should not be revised for reasons of sexist content alone in advance of the deliberations of the Interim Curriculum and Examinations Board and that bodies interested in the teaching of Irish e.g. Institúd Teangeolaíochta Éireann, INTO, An Bord Gaeilge and parents representatives be consulted first and that research on language teaching be taken into account. A further report was subsequently produced which showed that it would cost £3m+ to issue schools with new tapes and filmstrips for a new Cúrsaí Comhrá, and that the cost for one class only would be of the order of £409,000. Because of the cost implications at a time of financial stringency, the INTO request for the establishment of a working party was not acceded to for some time. In 1988 a working group representative of the Department, the INTO, school management and parents was set up under the following terms of reference:

(i)to establish the level of sexism and sex-stereotyping contained in textbooks and teaching materials used in national schools;

(ii)to make recommendations on the elimination of such content on a phased basis, taking due account of the need for restraint in public expenditure;

The first meeting of the group was held on December 2nd, 1988. Since then, the working party has reviewed and amended the 1984 guidelines for publishers, examined the Irish and International research available on gender equity with particular reference to textbooks and teaching materials, has re-examined the Cúrsaí Comhrá Gaeilge and the level of sexism in list standard textbooks in Irish English and Mathematics, and has commissioned the drawing up of a checklist which can be used to determine the degree of sexism/sex-stereotyping in textbooks. The question of withdrawal of textbooks already approved for use is being examined by the working party, and the checklist will be of particular use in this regard”.

An additional £248,000 was made available in the 1992 Budget to enable An Gúm to provide Irish language textbooks for use at second level. There is no such provision for the revision of Cúrsaí Comhrá.

The Equality Committee of the Irish National Teachers Organisation (I.N.T.O.) is currently engaged in a study of the entire range of textbooks on the Primary school curriculum. It appears that they have identified a pattern similar to that referred to above in the extract from the T.U.I. submission. Their general conclusion is that while the problem is particularly acute in the case of Gaeilge it is by no means an isolated one. They suggest that the Guidelines for publishers are not sufficient to deal with the extent of the problems. They are not aware of any mechanism for monitoring the implementation of these guidelines and they point out that the Department has not, to date, withdrawn a textbook from schools. The I.N.T.O. Equality Officer regards the issue of sexism and sex-stereotyping in text-books and the curriculum as

“the big Project to be tackled in relation to the curriculum. Subsequent to the issuing of the Guidelines to Publishers the I.N.T.O. requested the Department of Education to establish a working party representative of teachers, management and Department interests to make recommendations on the elimination of sexism in school textbooks and teaching materials within a five year period and to monitor progress in this area”.

The I.N.T.O. sought the establishment of this Committee in 1985. The first meeting of the Committee took place on 2nd December, 1988.

The situation regarding sexism in post-primary school textbooks was explained by the Department of Education as follows:

“Textbooks in post-primary schools are also subject to the guidelines for publishers. While there is no requirement that they be used from an approved list, (with the exception of literary works) and while they therefore cannot be controlled in the same way as at primary level, market forces dictate that textbooks of which the Department disapproves are unlikely to be used in second level schools. The Minister meets the educational publishers regularly and has consistently stressed that the guidelines avoiding sexism and sex-stereotyping must be followed. It was announced by the Minister on March 1st, 1990 that a committee representative of teachers, management, the Department and parents is being established at second level on the elimination of sexism and sex-stereotyping in textbooks and teaching materials”.

The T.U.I. has identified a number of subject areas where monitoring is required: History, English, Home Economics, Geography and Religious Education. The A.S.T.I. has drawn up a resource list of ‘gender fair’ text-books for use in English.

1.3 NEW POLICY STATEMENT ON GENDER EQUALITY

On March 1st, 1990 the policy of the Department of Education on Gender Equality was published. The full text of this policy statement is included at Appendix ? The document includes sections on administration, curriculum (primary and post-primary), appointments, teaching materials, management, In-Service Training and Inspection as well as a list of actions undertaken by the Department of Education and the E/C Action Programme.

The publication of this statement represents an important development: this is the first such statement on this issue in the Republic of Ireland.

1.4 REMARKS MADE BY THE SECRETARY TO THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (MAY 1990)

In his remarks to a Conference sponsored by the Department of Education and the Commission of the European Communities on Education and Training in May 1990 the Secretary to the Department of Education said:⁽³⁾

“Finally, but far from least, there is the question of equality of opportunities, and indeed affirmative action as the Americans would call it, to break down the barriers as to what is considered appropriate for boys and girls within the school curricula. I am not talking here particularly about home economics for girls versus woodwork and metalwork for boys, which in a sense was a bit of a red herring. I am talking more as examples, about the degree to which girls take higher course mathematics and their choice of science subjects (biology versus physics), on which affirmative action programmes are already in place. The wider provision of co-educational schools is facilitating changes but is not enough. One of the projects under the Irish Presidency is that of ‘enhanced treatment of equal opportunities for boys and girls in education in the initial and inservice training of teachers’. Indeed, taking action on equalising opportunities is very much a matter of change of attitude among all of us. Apart from the inherent rights of the young people concerned, action towards achieving equal opportuinities in education for all is seen as an important element in the technological and future competitiveness of the Member States of the Community”

In his concluding remarks he placed gender equity in the broader context of equality of opportunity:

“Finally, there is the question of ensuring equal opportunities for all by addressing regional disparities, socio-economic barriers and barriers on the basis of sex”.

1.5 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION MEASURES AGAINST INEQUALITY/SEXISM

The Department of Education has taken the following steps to promote gender equality in the schooling system (April 1990):

*Raised at discussions with Primary School Principals and teachers by Inspectors (school Report).

*Special encouragement to girls to take up physics, chemistry, technical subjects.

*Special committee on the Elimination of Sexism and sex-stereotyping in primary textbooks and teaching materials set up in 1988.

*Pilot course aimed at 13-15 year old girls on traditionally non-female subjects (Shannon).

*Research Project on aspects of gender equality in primary and post-primary education started in September 1989.

*Structure established for liaison between the Department of Education and ICTU in relation to gender issues.

*Special committee to look at sexism in second level textbooks established in March 1991.

These various measure will be described and discussed in the course of this report under the relevant headings in accordance with the structures of the 1984 J.O.C. Report.

2. CURRICULUM

2.1Developments since 1984 in relation to the curriculum in general. (Interim Curriculum and Examinations Board, The National Council for Curriculum and Assessment, The Primary Curriculum Review, The Primary Education Review Body, Research on the Hidden Curriculum).

2.2Leaving Certificate subject provision, allocation and choice (1980-1988) (1984 J.O.C. Report p.10).

2.1 DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1984 IN RELATION TO THE CURRICULUM IN GENERAL

2.1.1. The Work of the Interim Curriculum and Examinations Board:

The Interim Curriculum and Examinations Board (C.E.B.) was established in January 1984. It was reconstituted in November 1987 as the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (N.C.C.A.). The brief of the Council - which spans first and second level schooling - is to advise the Minister on all matters related to curriculum and assessment.

The Interim C.E.B. in its Consultative Document Issues and Structures in Education (1984) identified a need for “a broader and more balanced core curriculum, with an increased emphasis on skills and processes”. In response to this need the Board proposed a framework of eight areas of experience. Within each area there was to be a core curriculum which would be obligatory for pupils and a series of options described as additional contributions. The Chief Executive of the Interim C.E.B. wrote at the end of 1985:

“It is important to understood that the categories suggested are not co-terminous with individual subjects. They reflect educational experiences rather than particular subjects, experiences which can be realised through a variety of subjects and courses”.⁽⁴⁾

The eight areas of experience were as follows: Arts Education; Guidance and Counselling; Language and Literature; Mathematical Studies; Physical Education; Religious Education; Science and Technology; Social, Political and Environmental Studies.

In Issues and Structures in Education (1984) the Interim Curriculum and Examinations Board identified sex stereotyping as one of the issues which had to be addressed: “The Board notes the findings of the E.S.R.I. report. It welcomes intervention strategies to reduce sex-stereotyping through encouraging a comprehensive provision of subject options for all students and a wider take-up of these subjects”.⁽⁵⁾ The Interim Board also identified gender equity as an issue when dealing with the Senior Cycle in its document In Our Schools (March 1986):

“There is a need to ensure that the educational and employment prospects of young men and women extend beyond the traditional gender roles. Young men and women should be supported in making non-traditional educational choices, and young women should be encouraged to participate as much as young men in new areas such as information technology and biotechnology”.⁽⁶⁾

2.1.2. The National Council for Curriculum and Assessment

Since its establishment in 1987 the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment has focused its activities on two areas in particular: the introduction of The Junior Certificate at junior cycle and the development of the role of modern European languages and technology in the school curriculum.

2.1.2.1. The Junior Certificate

In relation to Junior Certificate the radical proposals of the Consultative Document of the Interim C.E.B. for a curriculum based on eight areas of ‘experience’ are ‘being re-examined in terms of a strategy for implementation in the context of the demands of change’ according to the Chief Executive of the N.C.C.A. However the core/options strategy is being introduced in the case of some syllabi at least. In the words of the Council’s Chief Executive ‘Junior Certificate is being introduced in the context of the existing curriculum framework with no change in relation to the existing design of the Curriculum along subject lines…. the familiar subject titles will remainl’ He says that the Council is, however, considering the introduction of a new curriculum framework in the medium term (mid 1990s) which may reflect some of the thinking of the Interim Curriculum and Examinations Board on ‘areas of experience’.

Whereas gender issues were given prominence by the Interim C.E.B. the focus now is on the introduction of new syllabi rather than on addressing specific issues. The new syllabi which were introduced in 1989 were: Art, Craft and Design; Business Studies; English; Gaeilge; Geography; History; Science, Technology. It is planned to introduce new syllabi in the following areas in September 1991: Woodwork, Mechanical Drawing, Music, Home Economics, Shorthand and Typing. The final phase of syllabus revision is planned for introduction in September 1992. This will include all remaining subject areas; in the case of French, German, Mathematics and Metalwork the new syllabi drawn up in the years prior to the introduction of the Junior Certificate will be reviewed and evaluated during this final phase of the syllabus revision programme.

The Chief Executive of the N.C.C.A. in an interview with the author suggested that ‘while gender as a specific issue was not an identified priority for the Council in the short to medium term the syllabus revision being undertaken by Council would try to ensure that syllabuses in their design, structure and format would not be gender biased’.

The Press Release on behalf of the Minister for Education on the occasion of the launch of the NCCA contains no reference to gender issues nor does The Guide to the

Junior Certificate.

In the short term the Chief Executive of the N.C.C.A. believes that the revision of the junior cycle curriculum will benefit young women in a number of ways:

(a)The introduction of a second level to subjects other than English, Maths, Gaelige (where two levels have always been available) will mean greater flexibility. For example a young woman might choose a subject at ordinary level where she didn’t have sufficient time to devote to it at higher level.

(b)The structure of some of the new Syllabi (e.g. Science) in a core plus modular format is, in the opinion of the Chief Executive of the Council, ‘a major advance for girls and provides greater flexibility for schools’.

The core is concerned with the scientific knowledge, skills, concepts and attitudes essential for all school leavers in today’s world. This is an essential component of the Science course at both Ordinary and Higher levels. It is presented as an integrated element within the overall course. Core material is also included in four of the five extensions of the syllabus. All students irrespective of course level or of options taken will be required to study the entire range of material presented as the core. Five extensions are available: Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Applied Science, Local Studies

At Ordinary Level students will select any three of these extensions. At Higher Level students will take the Physics, Chemistry and Biology extensions and will select either the Applied Science or the Local Studies extension. This means that young women who wish to take the Higher Level will have to take Physics and Chemistry.

(c)The Home Economics Syllabus is being revised along similar lines. According to the Chief Executive it is hoped that this revision will allow greater access for boys to this subject.

(d)The new Junior Technology course which was introduced to a number of schools on a pilot basis in September 1989 is, in the opinion of the Chief Executive, the biggest advance of all. He states that the provision of access for girls into technology was a central rationale for this course. The Council’s wish to use Junior Technology as a vehicle to give girls access to modern technology was, he says, reflected in the composition of the Course Committee for this new subject and he went on to say that gender would be the main criterion used for the selection of schools at the pilot stage.

(e)It is, according to the Chief Executive, the Council’s eventual intention to consider the introduction of a modular approach right across second level.

Because this latter point is of particular interest in the context of gender equality it is proposed to discuss the notion of modular curriculum further. The advantages of modular curriculum include:⁽⁷⁾

*It allows for credit accumulation - unlike the approach enshrined in the conventional timetable where students follow courses or subjects over a two-year period. In the modular system students choose units or credits in a way that allows them to build, Lego like, an individually designed course’. This in turn allows students to carry forward credits from one institution to another.

*Student motivation is enhanced where short-term goals replace a two-year examination course.

*It offers a solution to what is referred to as curriculum overcrowding in a context where ‘the lobbies for technical, vocational, creative, personal, political and social curriculum elements are becoming difficult to resist as are the groups working to safeguard areas such as modern languages or history’.

*It can decrease gender stereotyping. ‘Girls and boys find it easier to opt for shorter units in subject areas they traditionally avoid. A thirty hour module in technology or dance is less daunting than a two year G.C.S.E. course…the movement towards a modular structure requires the reconsideration of subject titles on the fourth and fifth-year curriculum. The new Secondary Examinations Council (SEC) criteria, The Sciences: Double Award, are likely to lead to further developments of modular schemes and this may have significant implications for the take up of the physical sciences by girls’.

*It can open the way for mixed-age grouping and for the linking of academic and vocational activities as well as safeguarding the teacher’s specialist identity and allowing for greater flexibility in the planning of teaching teams.

Of course the modular approach is not without problems. The critics claim that it:

*leads to over-assessment and creates unnecessary pressures for teachers and students;

*leads to an instrumental view of student learning because of the specificity of learning outcomes.

The attention given to modularity in this report arises out of its potential for tackling sex stereotyping in the curriculum. Indeed it is difficult to see how one of the key curriculum principles of the Junior Certificate - breadth and balance - can be achieved unless a modular approach is adopted. The ’Guide to the Junior Certificate’⁽⁸⁾ states

“in the final phase of compulsory schooling, every young person should have a wide range of educational experiences”

While the Guide does identify ’Equity of Treatment’ as a feature of the Junior Certificate it seems to regard the discontinuation of the dual system of certification at junior cycle as the realisation of equity. In contrast the D.E.S. document on the new National Curriculum in England and Wales, ’From Policy to Practice’⁽⁹⁾ states:

“The whole curriculum for all pupils will certainly need to include at appropriate (and in some cases all) stages:

These areas of the curriculum are clearly required in the curriculum which all pupils are entitled to by virtue of Section 1 of the (Education Reform) Act”.

There is no formal provision for the inclusion of cross-curricular themes in the Junior Certificate although the Guide does state that ’A conscious attempt is made in the Junior Certificate programme to identify areas of linkage between different subjects. Common themes and issues are often treated in different but complementary ways’.⁽¹⁰⁾ The examples given are: health education; media education; civic and political education. The design and delivery of a civics course on a modular, cross-curricular basis is under consideration by the Council. The Guide to the Junior Certificate does not include any reference to the issue of gender but gender equity is suggested as a cross-curricular theme in the June 1991 document from the N.C.C.A. on the Junior Certificate and the concept of cross-curricular themes is officially introduced in that document for the first time.

Insofar as a core curriculum did exist at second level in the Republic of Ireland up until now for students under fifteen years there were significant differences between the three main school types. According to Rialacha agus Clár students attending Secondary schools were required to take the following subjects: Irish, English, History and Geography, Mathematics, Science or a language other than Irish or English or Commerce or a subject of the Business Studies Group, Civics.

Students attending Vocational schools were required to take the following subjects: Irish, English, Mathematics; Mechanical Drawing or Art or Home Economics or Commerce; not less than two other subjects from the approved list; Civics.

The statement regarding students attending Comprehensive schools was put in very general terms: “the course shall include the subjects which from time to time comprise the compulsory common core of subjects in the curriculum of comprehensive schools”.⁽¹¹⁾ No guidelines are laid down for Community schools in Rialacha agus Clár but they are required to submit an educational scheme to the Department of Education.

This meant, in effect, that Irish, English and Mathematics were the core subjects in all second-level schools at the compulsory schooling stage. For the Leaving Certificate Irish is the only compulsory subject out of a total of thirty-one subjects. Science has not been a core subject for either boys or girls at any stage and schools and pupils have considerable latitude in their choice of subjects.

The above regulations effectively meant that it was more difficult for secondary schools to introduce young women to non-traditional subjects for a number of reasons:

(i)Their teacher options are limited since they must provide teachers for these core subjects. This makes the hiring of teachers of non-traditional subjects very difficult within existing constraints. This problem is compounded by the ’last in/first out’ clause of the Redeployment Scheme which means that recently appointed teachers of non-traditional subjects for girls will be the first to go on the panel while teachers of the core subjects will not be affected because of their seniority. Some 60 appeals of school managements to retain teachers of specialised subjects were upheld in 1988.

(ii)From the students’ point of view the amount of subject choice that is possible is quite limited, given that the average student takes seven (or at most eight) subjects at Inter Cert and five of these are already ’spoken for’.

The contrast with England and Wales and with Northern Ireland in relation to core curriculum is noteworthy: all young people in both jurisdictions are required to take Science and Technology up to the age of 16 under the National/Common Curriculum regulations.

Young people in Scotland are required to take at least one subject from each of eight modes:

*Technical Studies (Computers; Art, Craft and Design; Home Economics; Office and Information Studies; Technology).

While they are required to take a Standard Grade in the first four modes listed they may be assessed by other means in the remaining four areas. The main difference then between their situation and ours is that they are required to take a Science subject in their terminal examination at the end of compulsory schooling whereas that is not the case in the Republic of Ireland.

The National Council for Curriculum and Assessment proposed in its June 1991 Consultative Document that there should be a common core curriculum for all young people up until the end of compulsory schooling. The proposed core is presented in terms of subjects: Irish, English, Mathematics, History and Geography, Science or a Technological subject and not less than one other subject from the approved list of examination subjects. More recently it is being proposed in an N.C.C.A. Consultative Document on Technology that both Science and Technology be core subjects up to the end of compulsory schooling.

It should be noted that Home Economics is regarded as a Technology subject in addition to Materials Technology (Wood), Technology, Metalwork and Technical Graphics. During 1988-89 Science was being taken by 88% of Junior Cycle students and there can be very few, if any, girls in the country who don’t take either Science or Home Economics. While the move towards a common core would appear to promote gender equity the real significance of the change will depend on what subjects are regarded as meeting the requirements.

The Senior Cycle Policy Paper published by the N.C.C.A. in 1991 includes as the first feature of Senior Cycle Education:

“equal treatment of male and female students in terms of curriculum provision and choice, programme ethos and range of experience”.

This represents a significant advance in that it is one of the first official statements on curriculum which recognises gender equity as an important issue.

The most significant development in relation to the Council itself is contained in the terms of reference given it by the Minister for the period 1991-1994. It is stated that

“The Council in its deliberations on school curricula shall have due regard to equity issues including gender equity”.

2.1.3 Primary Education

2.1.3.1 Primary Curriculum Review

The Review Body on the Primary Curriculum was established by the Minister in 1987: its report was published in May 1990. Some of its terms of reference would appear to invite treatment of gender related issues:

One might expect that such an analysis would include consideration of the sexist language used in the 1971 Handbook where the masculine pronoun/adjective is persistently used, in accordance with the general practice of that time. The re-formulated aims as stated in the Report of the Review Body are neutral in that they refer consistently to ‘children’.

“The aims of education as stated in the Teachers’ Handbook are accepted subject to minor amendments in their formulation”.

(b)“The review will also identify priorities for future developments within the curriculum and will recommend strategies for such developments”.

(ii)what the Report refers to as ‘Other curriculum issues’ i.e. Health Education, Modern European languages, Information Technology, resources for disadvantaged pupils.

(i)From the gender equity perspective there are some sentences in the 1971Teachers’ Handbook which are sexist. Some examples:

“boys can now acquire a wide variety of skills and techniques and girls often become aware of style and grace”. [In relation to P.E. Syllabus, Classes V-VI].⁽¹²⁾

“While a large number of songs are suited to both boys and girls, some songs are particularly suited to boys e.g. martial, gay, humorous, others are more suited to girls e.g. lullabies, spinning songs, songs tender in content and expression”. [In relation to Music].⁽¹³⁾

“From making dolls’ clothes to making simple garments for herself is an easy and natural step for a girl in the Senior classes. She might begin with a sun suit or simple frock for herself or for her small sister”. [In relation to Art and Crafts].⁽¹⁴⁾

“The stronger boys in sixth class might try their hand at making a turf basket with osier rods or willow twigs”. [In relation to Art and Crafts].⁽¹⁵⁾

“And some children will quite graphically represent such complex activities as boys wrestling, children playing marbles or men at work”. [In relation to Arts and Crafts].⁽¹⁶⁾

The Art and Crafts Syllabus also contains the following sentences which reflect a non-sexist approach to gender issues:

“Needlework: This is a creative craft in its own right and when allied with other crafts it gives great scope for imagination, aesthetic judgement and skill. The craft is suitable for both boys and girls, and many of its most renowned exponents at the present time are men”.⁽¹⁷⁾

“At this stage, both boys and girls will want to make many things for themselves such as a stool, a window box, a pouffe, a kite, a rabbit hutch etc.”. [In relation to Woodcraft].⁽¹⁸⁾

“Helping with ‘housework’ should be regarded as something both natural and courteous, and boys as well as girls should take part”.⁽¹⁹⁾

The Report of the Review Body on the Primary Curriculum⁽²⁰⁾does not include any reference to sex stereotyping in the Teachers’ Handbook. It has recommended that the ’music section .... should be revised to take into account developments since 1971 and to provide a more formal statement of aims and objectives’. It has recommended ’a major revision of the Physical Education chapter so as to provide a detailed specification of aims and objectives’ and it has also called for ’a major revision of the curriculum in Art and Crafts that would involve a balance of making art with appreciating art’.

In relation to the existing Primary School curriculum then the Report of the Review Body does not contain any evidence to suggest that gender issues per se were considered by the Committee. Its failure to address the sexism in Cúrsaí Cómhrá, the official Irish language programme, is particularly noteworthy.

(ii)The main recommendations of the Curriculum Review Body in relation to other curriculum issues are as follows:⁽²¹⁾

*Modern European Languages should not be introduced into the curriculum in primary schools;

*The introduction of Information Technology is regarded as a valuable and cost-effective way of attaining a variety of curricular objectives;

*Additional resources should be provided to address the needs of disadvantaged pupils.

*The development of a Department of Education profile card, the use of appropriate standardised tests and the avoidance of over-intensive testing.

“That the existing Nature Study and Elementary Science programmes be integrated to form a new science programme.

Many of the above recommendations/non-recommendations are relevant to the Joint Oireachtas Committee’s 1984 recommendations. These will be adverted to in the relevant sections of this report e.g. health education at 2.5 below. What is of particular interest to us here is the fact that gender issues per se were not addressed by the Committee under the heading ‘Other Curriculum Issues’. This is rather surprising in view of the fact that according to the official Co-ordinated Report on The Development of Equal Opportunities (March 1987-September 1988).⁽²²⁾

“The Minister for Education has required that both the Review Body on the Primary Curriculum and the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment ensure that sexism and stereotyping be eliminated from curricula and that they work towards the implementation of gender equality in schools.”

Burke and Fontes report the following gender differences in curriculum provision in primary schools arising from research carried out into the educational beliefs and teaching practices of a sample of sixth-class teachers in Spring 1977.⁽²³⁾

“Teachers in girls” schools in each location devoted about two hours per week to art and craft as against one hour to such activities in boys’ schools in each location. Gender differences were also found in the case of two other variables when location was ignored and all schools of a single sex were considered together. The time devoted to mathematics in boys’ schools exceeded that in girls’ schools by some 27 minutes per week”.

2.1.3.2 Report of the Primary Education Review Body

The Primary Education Review Body submitted its Report to the Minister in December 1990. This Body was advised to take account of work already in progress by the Review Body on the Primary Curriculum. Its terms of reference were much broader than those of the latter Body: ’to review the primary sector of education and to report to the Government’.

The Report addresses many of the issues raised by the Joint Oireachtas Report; Teacher Education; INSET Provision; Disadvantage; Psychological Services; Educational Broadcasting; Educational Publishing; Information Technology. Other issues dealt with in the Report include: Quality in Education; The Education of the Children of Travelling Families; The Education of Gifted Children; Educational Research.

As in the case of the Report of the Review Body on the Primary Curriculum, the Report of the Primary Education Review Body does not include any specific reference to gender issues.

2.1.4 The Pragmatic and Utilitarian Nature of our Present Schooling System

The Joint Committee on Women’s Rights (1984) expressed reservations regarding ’the pragmatic and utilitarian nature’ of our present schooling system:

“Our educational system has for too long been geared mainly to passing examinations to the neglect of the important element of personal and social development of the student. Unless this situation changes for the better and rapidly, students will continue to leave school ill equipped to face the complexities and difficulties of the modern world”.

In recent times most enthusiasm has been engendered by moves towards the introduction at post-primary level of modern languages and technology on economic grounds. This trend can be traced back to the late 1950’s: Professor Donal Mulcahy⁽²⁴⁾ suggests that there was growing concern in Government circles “that the traditional pattern of post-primary education in Ireland was not sufficiently well articulated with emerging national needs and with possibilities in the economic sphere in particular .... The attitude embodied in this new approach was itself a reflection of a pronounced change in Ireland … a growing realisation of and confidence in the possibilities for economic growth and development were a major part of it. Post-primary education was to become one of these aspects of national life where this new consciousness would have a considerable impact. Thus for over a decade the Department of Education under successive Ministers for Education and within the context of the Second Programme for Economic Expansion was to expend a major effort in attempting to bring post-primary education into line with the dictates of this new way of thinking … The challenge was seen very much in terms of economic objectives; throughout the period, however, measures taken to achieve these objectives were frequently defended on the grounds that they promoted equality of educational opportunity for all.

The curriculum reform sought was chiefly of two kinds: firstly, a widening of the range of subjects available to all post-primary pupils with a view to meeting a wider range of aptitudes and interest; and secondly, an increased emphasis on technical and other applied studies, that is those studies most directly related to meeting the emerging staffing needs of an expanding and changing economy”.

Dr Kathleen Lynch has provided cogent evidence in her recent study The Hidden Curriculum that the chickens have come home to roost. On the basis of research carried out in 86 post-primary schools Lynch identified three universalistic orientations within the second-level education system:⁽²⁵⁾

“the bias towards the technical development of the individual within the productive sub-system; the competitive individualism which characterises relations between pupils in both their formal curriculum and ancillary curriculum learning: and the lack of individual autonomy permitted to pupils within both the productive and maintenance sub-systems of school life”.

Lynch also has some interesting and relevant comments to make in relation to technology and the ‘hidden curriculum’ of second-level schools in this study.

Commenting on the expansion of technical knowledge in the curriculum, especially at senior cycle, since The Investment in Education Report she remarks:

“when we analyse labour-force characteristics in more detail we find evidence suggesting that Ireland did not require the expansion of technical education (especially at the more specialised levels) to the degree that it has occurred”.

“57.4% of the employees in foreign-owned electronics firms were either unskilled or semi-skilled. The Telesis Report makes a similar point about foreign-owned electrical engineering plants. It observes that foreign-owned chemical and pharmaceutical companies do not carry out much research or development work in Ireland”.

She finds that there is no evidence for the view that the industrial or service sectors will require high levels of technical skills. This leads her to the conclusion that:

“Perhaps a more plausible explanation of the expansion of technical education in Ireland, therefore, is to see it as preparatory work in the creation of a relatively small technical elite which is required for capital’s expansion … The fact that large cohorts of pupils fail subjects or never pursue them to a level at which they become competent within them is incidental … certain features of both the Irish educational system and the current labour market lend credence to this hypothesis”.

Lynch comments also on the manner in which the social-class and gender composition of the school influence provision and on the social control function of the expansion of technical knowledge:

“At second level, the widespread availability of technical subjects forestalls parental disquiet as to the value of schooling: after all, the subjects taughtseem to be relevant in an industrial economy”.

“Given the relatively small proportion of new jobs requiring technical skills (at least of the type that require extensive pre-job education and training) the expansion of the technical might be more plausibly explained by the social control functions served by expanding technical knowledge and the role played by small technical elites in capital’s expansion”.

On the other hand the E/C Commission’s Industrial Research and Development Advisory Committee is concerned about shortages particularly of scientists, engineers, technologists and technicians and at the failure of Community education and training systems to respond adequately to the pace of technological change. In calling for greater co-operation between industry and schools the Advisory Committee stresses the need for more pupils in compulsory schooling to be better educated in science, mathematics and technology.

In relation to gender specifically Lynch found⁽²⁶⁾ that boys’ and girls’ schools differ considerably in terms of school ethos or climate. She found that

‘the aesthetic, moral/religious and sociopersonal development of pupils were higher priorities in girls’ schools than in boys ...... Furthermore, girls’ schools placed greater emphasis on developing qualities such as caring for others, sincerity gentleness, ’refinement’ and self-control, than their male counterparts … Lynch’s data also showed how girls’ schools give considerably more time in the daily timetable to the teaching of religion, how they allocate more time to personal development and pastoral care and how strict control of dress and behaviour is more likely to be a feature of girls’ schools than boys’.

In their statements of aims Lynch found that ’the development of self-discipline and/or self-control were cited as school aims in all thirteen girls’ schools which made their prospectuses available as policy statements. None of the twelve boys’ schools, which made their prospectuses available, made any reference to the desirability of developing self-discipline or self-control.

Boys’ schools, on the other hand, were found to place a high priority on the development of physical prowess and motor skills. In their prospectuses and school magazines, boys’ schools highlighted both the quality of their sports’ facilities and their sporting achievements. A number of the school magazines and reports from boys’ schools displayed pages upon pages of teams which participated or succeeded in sporting events. No such display existed in girls’ schools’ magazines. Photographs of girls playing the harp or piano, or reading quietly in the library, replaced the male images of physical prowess on the sports field.

An important finding from Lynch’s data, however, is that girls’ schools did not sacrifice academic achievement for the sake of moral, religious or sociopersonal goals. She found that girls’ schools had a strong achievement ethos in the academic sphere - measured in terms of the frequency and compulsoriness of assessments, and the extent of prize giving. Indeed, the achievement ethos in girls’ schools was frequently stronger than in boys’. It seems therefore that:

Girls’ schools tend to present girls with two seemingly contradictory role models: on the one hand they are educated to compete and succeed within the formal educational system … on the other hand they are socialised to be guardians of the moral order, to be unselfish, non-assertive and appreciative of the cultural rather than the purely material products of the age (Lynch, 1989)

Boys are not presented with these dichotomous models to the same degree; instrumental goals, such as labour market success, are encouraged therefore in a much more singular manner among boys. To understand why women do not realize their potential as much as men at the more advanced stages of education and in the labour market generally, one needs to examine the hidden curriculum of schools more closely. Girls are constantly reminded that labour market involvement is only one of their many responsibilities in life; boys do not receive this message to the same degree. Girls are socialized into subordination in subtle ways that cannot always be measured in statistical terms. A considerable amount of research needs to be undertaken to elicit what these precise mechanisms are so that policies can be devised to overcome them.

There is a certain irony in the fact that a Joint Oireachtas Committee found it necessary to comment in 1984 on the pragmatism of our schooling system given the apparently unqualified commitment of the two main political parties to ’Investment in Education’ in the 1960’s. Equality of educational opportunity is a major issue; while it is beyond the scope of this report it is clear that a great deal of work remains to be done in this regard. On the other hand the adaptation of the curriculum to meet economic needs has been remarkably effective in relation to whole curriculum content.

The Transition I and II curriculum development projects as well as the limited introduction of the Transition Year Option and the extension of the Vocational Preparation and Training Programme to all second level schools have helped to redress the balance somewhat in that the personal and social development of the student gets greater attention in these programmes. Now that there is a commitment the introduction of a six-year cycle of post-primary education for all pupils commencing their post-primary cycle in 1991 it is reasonable to expect that more attention will be given to affective issues in schools.

2.2 LEAVING CERTIFICATE SUBJECT PROVISION, ALLOCATION AND CHOICE

It was decided to focus on the following eleven Leaving Certificate subjects for the purpose of this report:

Many of the above subjects have been described as the critical filter subjects for young women wishing to ’break the mould’. Time did not permit as detailed an analysis of the provision, allocation and choice of Intermediate Cert subjects.

2.2.1. Leaving Certificate Subject Provision

Based on the Department of Education Statistics (Tuarascail Staitistiuil) the changes in the provision rates of the above subjects over the period 1981-1989 are presented in Table 9 and Appendix Table 1 below. The level of provision of each of the above subjects by gender category of school for the period 1981- 89 is presented in Appendix Tables 2.1.- 2.4.

The following points arising from these tables deserve mention in the context of this report. (The changes in provision levels in single-sex schools should be read in the context of the slight decrease in the number of such schools between 1981 and 1988 as outlined in the first row of Table 9).

*While the provision of Building Construction, Engineering and Technical Drawing has increased in mixed schools, Engineering is not provided in any girls’ school while Technical Drawing was provided in two girls’ schools during 1987-89 and Building Construction was provided in a girls’ school for the first time during 1988-89. The total number of girls taking each of these two subjects in single sex schools during 1988-89 was four.

*There has been a significant increase in the provision of Home Economics (Social and Scientific) at the expense of Home Economics (General) [See Appendix Table 2.4]. This increase has been particularly marked in mixed schools. There has been what is in relative terms a significant increase in the number of boys’ schools providing Home Economics subjects. (See Table 9).

*Notwithstanding the overall reduction in the number of girls’ schools there has been an increase in the absolute number of girls’ schools providing Higher Mathematics as against a decrease in the case of boys’ schools. There has been a significant increase in the number of mixed schools providing this option. This subject was provided in 627 (81%) second level schools in the country in 1988-89. It was provided in 150 (91%) boys’ schools, in 176 (91%) girls’ schools and in 301 (72%) mixed schools. It was offered in just 74% of girls’ schools in 1980-81. Its allocation within mixed schools will be examined below.

*Physics provision has changed quite significantly albeit from a low base-line position in 1981. The increases for girls’ and mixed schools are particularly significant. 77% of girls’ schools offered Physics in 1988-89 as against 35% in 1980-81. The growth in relation to Physics provision in girls’ schools is significantly greater than that for any other subject. It means that the number of girls’ schools providing the subject has more than doubled at a time when the overall number of girls’ schools was dropping.

While the provision of Chemistry has increased in mixed schools it has dropped in the case of boys’ and girls’ schools. Chemistry was provided in 92% of boys’ schools, 91% of girls’ schools and 50% of co-ed schools in 1988-89. The number of schools providing Physics overtook that for Chemistry in 1985-86 and this trend has continued subsequently.

The Pilot Intervention Project in Physics and Chemistry, which has been in place since 1985, is described at 5.3 below. It is dealt with under the general heading of School Organisational Issues because it basically involves the interchange of teachers.

*Biology provision is highest of the science subjects. It has dropped ever so slightly in boys’ and girls’ schools but its rise in mixed schools means that the overall provision continues to rise slightly.

*Of the Business subjects the overall provision of Accounting has increased each year, particularly in mixed schools, whilst the provision of Business Organisation has increased overall due to a significant increase in mixed schools. The provision of Economics continues to decline in all schools.

In general levels of provision of Home Economics (General and/or Social and Scientific) and Biology are particularly high while levels of provision of Building Construction and Engineering, though showing some growth, remain low. Provision levels for Physics, Higher Maths., Accounting and Business Organisation continue to grow.

TABLE 9 : Changes between 1981 and 1989 in the Numbers and Percentages of Second Level Schools Providing Stated Leaving Certificate Subjects.

2.2.2 Leaving Certificate Subject Allocation

The allocation of subjects within mixed schools is represented graphically in Appendix Tables 3.1-3.4. The main trends emerging are as follows:

*A slight growth but steady in the very small number of mixed schools offering Building Construction, Engineering and Technical Drawing to both sexes with a more significant growth in the proportion of mixed schools offeringHome Economics (Social and Scientific) to both sexes.

*The increasing tendency to offer Physics and Higher Maths to both boys and girls: there has been something of a reverse move in the case of Chemistry though not to any significant extent. Allocation levels for Biology have remained very static.

*There has been a steady increase in the proportion of schools offering Accounting and Business Organisation to both sexes with a related decrease in the level of allocation to girls only.

Data on subject allocation by gender within mixed and single sex schools for Inter and Leaving Certificate are presented in Tables 10 and 11 for two school years, 1985-86 and 1988-89.

TABLE 10 : Proportion of boys, girls for whom named Leaving Certificate subjects were not provided by gender of school in 1988-89 and 1985-86*

*The gender differences in levels of provision to boys and girls reflect the gender differences in levels of provision between single sex schools dealt with already at 2.2.1 (Appendix Tables 2.1-2.4) in relation to most of the subjects listed above.

*Levels of provision of Higher Maths to boys and girls in single sex schools were almost identical in 1988. Physics was not provided for 16.2% of girls as against 1.1% of boys in such schools but there had been a significant improvement since 1985.

*The very low provision rates for Agricultural Science in girls’ schools are noted.

*With regard to provision within mixed schools it would appear that most of the subjects listed are provided for boys and girls with the exceptions of:

*It should be noted that the situation with regard to the provision of Home Economics for boys had improved far more than that in relation to the provision of practical subjects for girls since 1985 - with the possible exception of Technical Drawing.

*The proportion of girls in mixed schools for whom Physics was not provided increased slightly between 1985 and 1988 (from 2.9 to 4.2)

*Higher Maths was not provided for 3% of girls as against 0.2% of boys in mixed schools during 1988-89.

*While girls fare slightly better than boys in relation to the provision of Accounting and Business Organisation in mixed schools, provision levels for boys in these schools have improved significantly over the past few years.

TABLE 11 : Proportion of boys, girls for whom named Intermediate Certificate subjects were not provided by gender of school in 1988-89 and 1985-86*

*The proportion of girls in single sex schools for whom Higher Maths was not provided increased from 3.4% in 1985-86 to 6% in 1988-89 while the proportion for boys dropped from 9.5% to 5.7% over the same period.

*Science A (the most popular Science syllabus) was not provided for 9.6% of girls as against 4.3% of boys in single sex schools in 1988-89.

*The provision of Home Economics, Woodwork, Metalwork and Mechanical Drawing continues to be sex stereotyped to a remarkable degree in single sex schools.

Gender differences in allocation levels in mixed schools at Intermediate Certificate level are confined, as far as boys are concerned, to Home Economics and Commerce and to Woodwork, Metalwork and Mechanical Drawing in the case of girls. Significant improvements are noted in the case of Home Economics, Woodwork and Mechanical Drawing over the period in question. It should be recognised however that Woodwork, Metalwork and Mechanical Drawing are not allocated at this level to a significant proportion of girls and that Home Economics is not allocated to a significant proportion of boys.

2.2.3 Leaving Certificate Subject Choice in General

Information on subject choice in general is presented in Appendix Tables 4.1 - 4.2. In Appendix Tables 5.1-5.4 the ratios of males/females taking stated Leaving Certificate subjects are outlined. Of the eleven subjects being considered the uptake of Biology is by far the highest. As was the case with subject provision there has been an increase in the level of student choice of all subjects with the exception of Home Economics (General) and Economics. This must be seen, of course, in the context of increasing student numbers at second level.

Of the eleven subjects being considered the most noticeable advances in the non-stereotyped direction (see Appendix Tables 5.1-5.4) have occurred in relation to Physics (especially) and Higher Maths although the proportion of males taking this option increased again in 1988-89 for the first time in the decade. There have also been slight moves in the direction of de-stereotyping in the case of a number of other subjects - Home Economics being the most noteworthy - with some improvement also in the case of Chemistry. In the case of Accounting and Economics the move is towards higher male participation.

Taking the individual subjects one by one, there has been a steady growth in the numbers of students taking Building Construction, Engineering, Technical Drawing, Home Economics (Social and Scientific), Physics, Higher Maths, Biology, Accounting and Business Organisation. The choice of individual subjects by gender category of school is considered in Appendix Tables 6.1-6.13. The gender imbalance is extremely pronounced in the case of Building Construction, Engineering and Technical Drawing. While the number of boys taking Home Economics remains small, it has grown significantly, especially when compared to female participation in Building Construction, Engineering and Technical Drawing. While male participation rates in Physics have increased in mixed schools, the participation rates of females are encouraging both in girls’ and mixed schools (see 5.3 below). The picture in relation to Higher Maths is even more encouraging apart from the significant fall off in the numbers of girls taking this option in girls’ schools in 1988-89 which accounts for the decline in the ratio of girls taking Higher Maths in that year. Uptake of Biology continues to be very high in girls’ schools and on the part of girls in mixed schools while there has been a significant decline in the uptake of Chemistry in boys’ schools. Uptake of Accounting is about the same in boys’ and girls’ schools but more girls take it in mixed schools. More girls than boys choose Business Organisation in single sex schools and in mixed schools but there has been a significant growth in male participation rates in these two subjects. More boys than girls take Economics in single sex schools.

NOTE: According to a recent study conducted by the T.U.I. students are charged £1 Per week for ingredients used in Home Economics: there are no charges for materials used in other practical classes e.g. Woodwork, Metalwork, etc.

As a general observation both boys and girls are moving out of the Arts, Humanities and certain languages into the Sciences (especially) and into business subjects. The move out of the Arts and Humanities is especially noticeable among girls : in 1988-89 only 30% of girls were taking Geography for the Leaving Certificate and only 24% of girls were taking History as against 74% studying Geography and 42% taking History in 1972-73. The drop in the proportion of boys taking Geography and History over the same period was from 70% to 39% and 45% to 30% respectively.

As can be seen from Appendix Table 5.3 the ratio of girls : boys taking Accounting and Business Organisation has remained stable during the 1980’s notwithstanding the increased uptake (see Appendix Table 4.1) of both subjects.

Hannan (1983) found that gender differences in pupils’ own choices were greater than differences in either the provision or allocation of subjects to boys and girls. The situation regarding subject provision and allocation continues to improve (see Appendix Tables 2.1-2.4, 3.1-3.4). In the ‘problem areas’ (technology type subjects as far as girls are concerned) student choice remains the main issue.

2.2.4 Subject Choice Within Mixed Schools

Information regarding subject choice in mixed schools in relation to the subjects under discussion is provided below in Appendix Tables 7.1-7.13. This data should be considered in the context of subject choice in general (Appendix Tables 4.1-4.2) the ratio of males/females taking the stated Leaving Certificate subjects by year (Appendix Tables 5.1 ff.) and of subject choice by gender category of school (Appendix Tables 6.1 ff). The following points are of interest in the context of this report.

*The high level of boys taking Building Construction and Engineering in a context where the subject was not offered to girls at all; the relatively small numbers of girls taking both of these subjects and (when offered) Technical Drawing. (Appendix Tables 7.1 - 7.3)

*The considerable growth in the numbers of boys and girls choosing Home Economics (Social and Scientific) in a scenario where the subject was offered to both sexes. (Appendix Table 7.13).

*The substantial growth in the numbers (boys especially) taking Physics in schools where it was offered to both sexes. (Appendix Table 7.5).

*The numbers of boys and girls taking Chemistry in mixed schools have remained static since 1984-85 (Appendix Table 7.6)

*The predominance of girls choosing Biology where it was offered to both - which was the norm. (Appendix Table 7.7)

*Higher Maths is being chosen by more males and females in mixed schools and the allocation of this subject to males only is becoming increasingly rare. (Appendix Table 7.8)

*More girls than boys take Accounting and Business Organisation in mixed schools where both have the option; both subjects continue to grow in popularity with girls and boys. The tendency is for the Business subjects to be allocated more and more to both sexes. (Appendix Tables 7.9-7.11)

2.2.5 OECD Review

“the secondary curriculum reveals a gender imbalance, with a concentration of boys in the scientific, technical and trade subjects and of girls in the humanities and secretarial, clerical and domestic subjects … The gender imbalance in the curriculum has been modified (in recent years) but much more slowly than seems desirable to its critics”⁽²⁷⁾

2.2.6 Aer Lingus Young Scientist Competition

Three young women from Ennis Vocational School submitted a prize winning project to the Aer Lingus Young Scientists Exhibition in 1992 which consisted of a comprehensive analysis of the scheme since its estalishment in 1965. Some of the main findings are of particular interest in the context of this report:

*Evidence was found of sex-stereotyping in relation to the proportions of males and females entering projects under the various categories - Physics being the most popular among males and Biology being the choice among females. More boys enter Electronics and Computer projects;

*More male than female teachers have been involved during the period 1981-91 and male teachers tend to be involved with individual projects;

*Young women are under-represented in the list of category prizewinners while the Aer Lingus Young Scientists of the Year have been male on 21 (33) occasions. The situation has improved during the period 1980-90 in that the overall award has gone to females on seven occasions and it has been won exclusively by women during the period 1985-90 inclusive.

2.2.7 Achievement

Leaving Certificate and Intermediate Certificate results in certain critical subjects for 1990 were analysed by gender (see Appendix Tables 8.1, 8.2). The following points emerge from this analysis:

*The proportion of girls achieving A grades in Higher Level courses was consistently lower than the proportion of boys in the case of Mathematics (Leaving (+4.8%) and Inter (+2.5%), Physics (+1.5%), Chemistry (+4.5%), Engineering (+5.1%), Construction Studies (+1.1%) and Technical Drawing (+0.3%).

*The proportion of boys getting an A or B was greater than the proportion of girls in the case of Higher Maths [(Leaving (+4.2%) and Inter (+5.6%)], Chemistry (+9.5%), Engineering (+15.5%)., Construction Studies (+6.2%) and Technical Drawing (+5.4%). Girls had a higher proportion of As and Bs in Higher Physics (+1.5%) and they out-performed boys in Intermediate Certifcate Science (+6.5%).

*The proportion of girls scoring less than D was smaller than the proportion of boys in this traditionally ’failing’ category in the case of Higher Maths (LC), Intermediate Science, Lower Course Physics and Lower Course Chemistry at Leaving Cert..

The differences by gender are statistically highly significant in the case of Higher Maths (Leaving), Physics and Chemistry for 1990 and also for 1989 (see Appendix Table 8.3) [Inter Cert results are not published by gender in Tuarascáil Staitistiúl for 1989 but the differences for 1990 are also highly significant].

The most recently published International Assessment of Educational Progress report^(27a) based on data from 20 countries, came up with the very interesting finding in relation to the learning of Mathematics that

“while there were no gender differences at age 9 in Spain (except Cataluna), Ireland and Canada, boys scored significantly higher than girls in these three countries at age 13. The reverse is true in Korea and Israel”.

’performance of females and males did not differ significantly in most of the comprehensive populations’.

While overall achievement levels of Irish pupils in Science were quite poor, we are identified as one of the eight participating countries where males outperform females in Science by significant margins at age 9. At age 13 males were performing significantly better than females in Science in almost all of the populations studied including Ireland

2.2.8 New Leaving Certificate Vocational Programme

The course structure of the ‘Leaving Certificate Vocational Programme’ announced recently (June 1989) is unlikely to be attractive to girls’ schools or to girls in co-ed schools. While it stresses that ‘new technologies will be undertaken in the technological subjects chosen’ it lays down that students following the new programme will follow the Leaving Certificate programme in at least five subjects to include:

Condition (b) above will effectively rule out female participation in that the proportions of females taking even one of these subjects - not to mention two - are negligible. (Appendix Tables 5.1, 6.1-6.3)

2.2.9 Comparison With England And Wales and Northern Ireland

It has to be acknowledged that the same broad picture emerges in England and Wales with regard to subject choice.⁽²⁸⁾ While 52 per cent of the entrants for CSE and ‘O’ level were female in 1985 only 47 per cent of ‘A’ level entrants were female. Girls were most under-represented in Technical Drawing (7.2 per cent at ‘O’ level) while boys were least represented in Cookery and Domestic subjects where they comprised 1.4 per cent of ‘A’ level entrants. Girls were also significantly under-represented in Physics (around 20% for CSE and ‘A’ level and 25% for ‘O’ level), Computer Studies (approx. 35% at CSE, 30% at ‘O’ level and less than 20% at ‘A’ level) and in ‘A’ level Mathematics (approx. 30%). The participation of girls in Art and Craft increased proportionately the longer they remained on at school. Girls accounted for approx. 90% of all those taking Business and Office Practice at CSE.

Despite the fact that Equal Opportunities is one of the central themes of the new Technical and Vocational Education Initiative (TVEI) girls have been in a minority (between 41 and 45 per cent) in each of the years 1983-86. Women comprised about 40 per cent of university and polytechnic undergraduates in England and Wales during 1984-85. Clear gender differences emerge at this level in the case of Engineering and Technology (11 males for every 1 female), Science (more than 2 males for every 1 female) and Agriculture, Forestry and Veterinary Science (2.5 males for every female). Females outnumbered males in the following: Education (more than 2:1); Medicine, Dentistry and Health (2:1); Administrative, Business and Social Studies (1.33:1); Architecture and other professional vocational subjects (nearly 2:1); Languages, Literature and area studies (2.5:1); Arts, other than languages and Music, Drama, Art and Design.

It is always difficult to know whether it is more appropriate to compare Intermediate or Leaving Certificate with GCSE. Students in England and Northern Ireland take a small number of A levels; GCSE and Leaving Cert are taken after five years of school and the average number of subjects taken in each exam is seven. In ther case of Scotland Ordinary Grade is taken at the end of four years of second level schooling and Higher Grade is taken after six years.

The general picture emerging from Table 12 suggests that subject uptake in the Leaving Certificate in the Republic of Ireland is more stereotyped than for GCSE in England or Northern Ireland and for Ordinary and Higher Grade in Scotland. A lower proportion of those taking Higher Maths, Physics, Chemistry in the Republic of Ireland are girls. While female participation in technical subjects is generally low it is especially low in the case of the Republic of Ireland and girls have a wider range of choice in the other jurisdictions. This general picture is complemented by particularly high levels of participation on the part of Republic of Ireland girls in Biology, Home Economics and Art/Craft. While the participation rates of Republic of Ireland girls in Business subjects are generally lower this should be seen in the context of particularly high overall participation rates in Business subjects in this jurisdiction. As a general comment Intermediate Cert participation rates for Republic of Ireland girls compare quite favourably with GCSE rates and with the Scottish Ordinary Grade participation rates.

TABLE 12 : Proportions of students choosing certain subjects in GCSE (England and Northern Ireland), Ordinary and Higher Grade (Scotland) and in Intermediate and Leaving Certificate who are girls (1988)

2.2.10 Junior Certificate Technology

This new junior cycle programme was introduced to some 63 schools in September 1989 and was extended to a further 53 schools in 1990-91. The participating schools are described in Table 13 below.

As of April 1991 Junior Certificate Technology was being provided in 113 schools of which 60 became involved in 1989-90 and 53 in 1990-91.

24% of all second level schools in the country are girls’ schools. (Tuarascáil Staitistiúl for 1988-89).

It should be noted that 25% of participating schools in 1989-90 were girls’ schools while the proportion of girls’ schools dropped to 19% in 1990-91.

20% of all second level schools in the country are boys’ schools. (Tuarascáil Staitistiúl for 1988-89).

*71% of participating schools include girls (they are either mixed or girls’ schools); the ratio for 1989-90 was also 71%. 80% of all second level schools fell into this category in 1988-89.

This data suggests that there has been a drop in the proportion of girls’ schools participating in Junior Certificate Technology in 1990-91. The Department of Education Inspector with responsibility in this area commented that ‘The Boys’ School/Girls’ School breakdown may be a reflection of applications and commitment’

It has not proved possible to get information regarding (a) applications for participation in Junior Certificate Technology; (b) the gender of students taking the programme in mixed schools; (c) the gender of participating teachers.

Of the original 63 schools which were officially listed as providing the programme in 1989-90, 4 have dropped out (2 Vocational schools, 1 Boys’ Secondary, 1 Girls’ Secondary) while one additional school (a Community School) became involved during the year.

Participating schools were identified according to a number of criteria: balance between school types and location and gender were two of the more important considerations as was a commitment to provide the programme within existing resources.

According to the Chief Executive of the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (in an interview with the author):

“a major objective of Junior Certificate Technology was to provide much greater access to girls. .. this was a stated objective with the full approval of the Minister … a priority was given to girls either in single sex or mixed schools”.

He was at pains to stress that Junior Technology is not the only curricular vehicle for the familiarisation of young women with non-traditional subjects.

“for example it is relevant also to the new syllabus for Business Studies. .. to date Shorthand and Typing were offered at Group Cert. level only … the question of their future role arises in the context of unifying the system … these are Phase 2 subjects for us … the view of the Council is that all young people should learn keyboard skills … this is relevant to the issue of encouraging girls towards the new technologies”.

“the Council has the issue of a new curriculum framework under consideration,.. the key question here is: should technology be a core subject for all ?”.

If this latter question is answered in the positive then there will be formal provision for the introduction of all young women into technology. Due, presumably, to resource constraints there is no evidence of any intention at central level to upgrade the optional status of Computer Studies in schools but the new Business Studies syllabus for Junior Certificate does include a section on New Information Technology.

With regard to the development of the Junior Certificate Technology Course the Course Committee was constituted as follows:

The nominated members of this Committee have all been male (with the exception of one JMB nominee who went abroad) as is the Education Officer for Technology. The Council has co-opted women on to the Committee in an attempt to overcome this imbalance. There are currently two women (without voting rights) on the Committee. Having interviewed two of the women who have served on the Committee to date it appears that they are generally happy with the syllabus but concerned about the failure to address gender issues at the implementation stage. As Course Committee members they are unhappy that they have no say when it comes to INSET at which stage issues to do with implementation arise. INSET programmes have to date been designed by an all-male Committee.

The research literature elsewhere is replete⁽²⁹⁾ with evidence on the importance of ‘girl friendliness’ in the curriculum if young women are to adopt non-traditional careers/subjects, of the value of appropriate role models in this regard and of the importance of school ethos and hidden curriculum. The GIST Project focus was on the stereotyping of science and technology as masculine. Kelly concludes that⁽³⁰⁾

“previous research (summarised in Kelly, 1981) had documented the extent to which girls drop out of scientific subjects when these become optional and suggested some possible explanations and strategies for change”.

The research clearly questions the traditional view of science and science teaching as ‘value free’. The ESRI study ’Schooling and Sex Roles’⁽³¹⁾ has identified a similar problem in the Republic of Ireland context.

On the basis of interviews with the CEO of the NCCA, with the Department of Education Inspector responsible for Junior Technology and with the Education Officer of the NCCA for Technology, it would appear that the focus at INSET programmes in relation to the new programme will be on resources, knowledge and skills. There are no plans to address the issue of girls’ attitudes to technology but the CEO of the NCCA stressed that:

“the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment did recommend to the Minister that she should examine the materials aspect of the programme lest it might exclude girls”.

2.2.11 Recent Economies and their Effect on Curriculum

The effects of recent economies on curriculum provision are dealt with below in the sections on pupil/teacher ratio (Section 6) and Guidance (Section 4). The 1984 J.O.C. Report rightly refers to time-tabling as an issue affecting subject and career choice. The observations made above regarding modularisation are relevant here. It is also true that time-tabling is a complex art requiring expertise and support in the form of In-service provision and that a creative approach to time-tabling can help improve student choice. This is an aspect of educational administration which could receive more attention in the Irish system. Availability of teachers is a key issue in this respect and the actual situation with regard to pupil/teacher ratio is now worse than it was when the 1984 Report was prepared.

2.2.12 Participation of Women in Third Level Education

Girls have attained higher aggregate grades in major public examinations (Clancy, 1987 p. 13; Greaney and Kellaghan, 1984, p. 180) and they are more likely to stay on to complete second-level education - in 1989, 51.1% of students taking Leaving Certificatee courses were girls. Dr Pat Clancy points in his report Who Goes to College ?,⁽³²⁾ published by the Higher Education Authority in 1988, to the anomoly that males constituted a majority (52%) of new entrants to third level. He goes on to point out however, that

“female participation rates in higher education are increasing at a faster rate that those of males. In 1980, 46% of new entrants were female compared to 48% in the present study. Gender differentials by field of study were considerably more marked than was the case for overall participation rates. Forty per cent of male new entrants were enrolled in the field of technology compared to less that 8% of females, making this the most sex-typed field of study. In contrast, females were disproportionately represented in Hotel, Catering and Tourism, Social Science, Education and Art and Design”.

In his more recent article (1989) Clancy⁽³³⁾ has compared female participation in higher education over a thirty year period. He found that women comprised only 27.4% of full-time higher education students in 1955-56 and 29.4% in 1965-66. The 46% of females in 1986-87 would suggest that women will shortly constitute a majority of new entrants to higher education.

It should be noted that Clancy does not include data on entrance to Nursing or Secretarial programmes in his 1988 study.

The effects of subject provision, allocation and choice at post-primary level presented above, are clearly evident then when it comes to choice of third level course. This is spelled out by Clancy in the body of his report when he looks at fields of study:

“The distribution of students between these fields of study varied significantly by sex. The largest percentage (40%) of male new entrants were in the field of technology. In contrast, less than 8% of female new entrants were enrolled in technology, making this the most sex-typed field of study. The largest percentage (24%) of female new entrants enrolled in Commerce, a further 21% entered the Humanities and 16.6% enrolled in Science; the corresponding percentages of male new entrants in these fields of study were 21% in Commerce, 13% in Science and 11% in the Humanities. Significantly higher percentages of female new entrants enrolled in Hotel, Catering and Tourism, Social Science, Education and Art and Design, while a much higher percentage of male new entrants enrolled in Agriculture”.

In examining the distribution of students by field of study in the different colleges it is necessary to take account of the different classifications of subjects areas between colleges. The distribution of new entrants, by field of study and sex, in the H.E.A. designated colleges is shown in Table 12(i) below. Arts is the field of study which had the largest percentage (32.5%) of new entrants. Other fields of study in which a large percentage of new entrants enrolled were Science (17%) and Commerce and Engineering, both 13%. Almost 7% of new entrants were admitted to Medicine while the remainder were distributed amongst the other fields of study.

The distribution of students between the different fields of study varied widely for males and females. Arts, Social Science and Communications and Information Studies attracted a disproportionate number of female students. In contrast, Engineering, Agricultural Science, Education (in Thomond College) and Commerce had a disproportionate number of male students. Science, Law, and Economic and Social Studies enrolled approximately equal proportions of male and female students. The gender differentials in the distribution of students by field of study in these colleges have not changed radically from that of the earlier study. Perhaps the most significant shifts are evident in Medicine and Dentistry where females now constitute the majority.

The distribution of new entrants by field of study and sex for the non H.E.A. designated institutions is shown in Table 12(ii) below. The largest percentage of students (30%) was enrolled in Business, Administrative and Secretarial Studies. Almost 22% of students were enrolled in General Engineering with a further 7% in Construction Studies. Thirteen per cent of participants were enrolled in Science with a further 8% in Education while Art and Design and Computer Studies each enrolled 6% of new entrants. Almost 5% of new entrants were enrolled in Hotel, Catering and Tourism while a further 3% were enrolled in General Studies. This category includes a diverse range of courses in Social Studies, Legal Studies, Journalism, Public Relations, Environmental Management and Music.

The distribution of students between these fields of study varied significantly by sex. The largest percentage (38%) of male new entrants enrolled in General Engineering, while only 3% of females entered this field of study. Construction Studies also revealed a large sex differential in favour of males, with 11.5% of male entrants compared to only 2% of female new entrants. The largest percentage (35.5%) of female new entrants enrolled in Business, Administrative and Secretarial Studies, although this field of study is less sex-typed since it enrolled 25% of male new entrants. Other fields of study to reveal a large sex differential in favour of females were Education, General Studies, Hotel, Catering and Tourism, Art and Design and Science. Computer Studies was the field of study with the smallest sex differential in enrolment in these colleges.

In a recent article Clancy⁽³⁴⁾ looks at the linkage between second and third level in the light of comprehensive data relating to all new entrants to higher education as presented in Table 15.

TABLE 15 : Average number of Science, Language, Business, Technical and Other’ Subjects taken at Leaving Certificate by Third Level Field of Study and Gender

’It shows, separately for males and females, the average number of Leaving Certificate subjects taken, from each of five different subject groups, by new entrants to the different third-level fields of study. The majority of students present seven subjects for the Leaving Certificate, taking Mathematics, and three languages (Irish, English and French or another modern continental language). The main variability arises in the choice of the three additional subjects. The patterns of choice reflect different propensities to choose from the science group, the business group, the technical group and the heterogeneous ‘other subjects’ group. The overall gender differences in the take-up of Leaving Cert subjects is shown in the final row of this table: males tend to choose more science, business and technical subjects while females tend to take more languages and more from the ‘other subjects’ group. However, the most interesting feature of this table is the relationship between subject specialisation at second level and third-level field of study.

The Table reveals a clear pattern. Students who take more science subjects at second level are more likely to enter Medicine, Science and Agriculture, while those with least science subjects are more likely to enter Art & Design, Hotel, Catering & Tourism, Commerce, the Humanities and Social Science. While there is less variability in the take-up of languages, it is clear that those with more languages enter Law and the Humanities while those with fewer languages are more likely to enter Art & Design, Technology and Commerce. The pattern of choice with respect to the differential take-up of business subjects is more emphatic. Students who entered Commerce and Hotel, Catering & Tourism had most Leaving Cert business subjects, while those who entered Medicine had least. The take-up of technical subjects at second level is very low, especially for females, and is associated mainly with those who study technology at third level’ (my italics)

2.3 EDUCATION AS PREPARATION FOR LIFE

“A programme to teach basic skills for living, and embracing social and political science, to be introduced in all post-primary schools”.

The Interim Curriculum and Examinations Board established a Board of Studies for Social, Political and Environmental Education. This Board drafted a comprehensive se of aims of Social, Political and Environmental Education, some of which could involve a treatment of gender issues:

*To identify bias, prejudices, stereotyping, discrimination at personal, group, local, national and global levels.

*To develop awareness, both cognitive and experiential, of inequality and injustice in their new society and in the world.

The proposal to introduce such a programme made sense only in the context of a radically revamped curriculum as proposed in the curricular framework for Junior Cycle in Issues and Structures in Education referred to above.

Now that this latter approach has been postponed the introduction of another new subject (however important) in the context of an already overcrowded curriculum would be ill-advised. The official position regarding the proposal from the Interim C.E.B. for the introduction of this new subject is that “it is awaiting a response from the Minister”. The design and delivery of a civics course on a modular, cross-curricular basis is under consideration by the Council. The present tendency in other countries is to favour a cross curricular approach to the treatment of the socio-political area. This is the approach which has been adopted in the latest curriculum reforms in Northern Ireland.⁽³⁵⁾

The Chief Executive of the N.C.C.A. has stressed to the author that all Course Committees were asked to keep social, political and environmental issues in mind. The new Junior Certificate History and Geography Syllabi do certainly include such issues. In fact one of the aims of the programme of the Junior Certificate is

“to prepare the young person for the responsibilities of citizenship in the national context and in the context of the wider European community”.

“A conscious attempt is made in the Junior Certificate Programme to identify areas of linkage between different subjects. Common themes and issues are often treated in different but complementary ways. For instance:

Civic and political education: all subjects have as crucial objective the development in young people of positive attitudes towards themselves and their community. The new syllabuses in subjects such as History and Geography, Business Studies and English offer particularly rich opportunities for the development of such attitudes. The Council is putting in place a committee to review the role of Civics in the curriculum”.

The Board of Studies for Social, Political and Environmental Education noted that ‘Civics’, the subject often considered to be the major vehicle for Social, Political and Environmental Education at present is only taken at junior cycle, seldom occupies more than one timetable period per week, requires no specific training or specialization on the part of its teachers, is often haphazard in its implementation and, lacking a terminal ‘official’ examination, is often looked on as less important than other subjects.⁽³⁷⁾

With regard to the aspect of this recommendation which refers to the need for a programme for living, the new Junior Certificate Business Studies Syllabus includes the following four major sections:

*To contribute to a balanced and appropriate general education at the Junior Cycle level, leading to the personal and social development of each student.

*To provide each student with an appropriate level of economic/business literacy.

*To develop a positive attitude towards budgeting in the personal, business and national context.

In the section on ’The Business of Living’ the following topics will be dealt with: Budgeting; Consumer Education; Financial Services e.g. Banking, Borrowing, Insurance. This section, in particular, does seem to take up many of the issues raised at 3.3. of the Joint Oireachtas Report (1984).

The recently published ESRI study, The Quality of Their Education is based on interviews with a large sample of young people who had left school some five years previously. The report found that, while school leavers were most positive about basic education provision (the 3rs),

“There is only moderate to low satisfaction with most other aspects of educational preparation. Only 17 to 55 per cent of respondents are highly satisfied with most aspects of preparation for work and adult life and with education for personal and social development. Civic education is given the lowest satisfaction rating of all but it is also given the lowest priority. It is a troubling finding for the development and nature of our civic culture, that both schools and pupils attach so little importance to civic/political education”.⁽³⁶⁾

The report identifies the following as two of the four policy implications of the study.

(i)The need to considerably improve the content and quality of personal and social development education and pastoral care programmes in schools;

(ii)The necessity to correct for the disturbing level of both pupil and school disinterest in civic-political education.

At senior cycle level these issues have been tackled by the Transition from School to Adult and Working Life Projects and by the Transition Year Option and the VPT programme. The Transition I series of Projects (1978-82) produced the following programmes where these issues are addressed.

*Education for Youth in Employment (Curriculum Development Unit, Westland Row, Dublin)

*The whole focus of the North May/Sligo Project was on ’Education for Development’ and on the promotion of creativity.

Out of the Transition II series of projects came the following related programmes:

*Senior Certificate programmes and in particular the competencies part of Work and Communication Skills, (Spiral 2 Project, Curriculum Development Centre, Shannon)

The latter two interventions were particularly successful in dealing with preparation for living in the context of disadvantaged urban areas. While all of the above programmes have a significant contribution to make to ‘Education for Living’, the dissemination of the results of pilot Projects (however successful) is extremely problematic in a situation where resources for INSET are so scarce.

The SPIRAL 2 Project based at Shannon Curriculum Development Centre (1983-87) was charged as one of its briefs ‘to familiarise young women with non traditional occupations’. The Project attempted to fulfil its brief in three ways:

*The development of curriculum materials such as ’Why Not’? (Junior Cycle) and ’Gender Studies’ (Senior Certificate) and the recognition of gender equity as one of the underlying principles of the Senior Certificate.

*A joint initiative with AnCO which involved the attendance of school going women at the AnCO Training Centre in Limerick for a period of three weeks.

*Support for schools wishing to review their policy in relation to gender equality.

The Transition Projects have had considerable resources at their disposal during their pilot phases to enable the development of relevant curriculum materials and the provision of appropriate in-service programmes.⁽³⁸⁾

The general aim of V.P.T Programmes is defined by the Department of Education as that of

“bridging the gap between the values and experiences normally part of traditional education and those current in the adult world of work. In the service sector, the most rapidly growing economic sector, personal and interpersonal skills are particularly important and all young workers must have the ability to plan and make life and career decisions if they are to be successful in working life”.

The proposed syllabus for General Studies (and Personal and Social Development) includes Education for Living, Communications and Social Mathematics.

“the preparation of young people for their role as autonomous, participative and responsible members of society”.

The period of compulsory schooling is particularly important. While the new Junior Certificate Business Studies Syllabus and the present (and presumably the new) Leaving Certificate Home Economics (Social and Scientific) Syllabus deal with many of the issues raised in the Joint Oireachtas Report it has to be stressed that neither of these is a core subject. It would be quite possible for a young person to leave second level school without having taken either one.

The recent announcement that a six-year cycle of post-primary education will be introduced for all pupils commencing their post-primary cycle in 1991 (see 69f Programme for Economic and Social Progress) should enable schools to give more attention to the preparation for life particularly in the case of those who remain on after the compulsory leaving age.

The N.C.C.A. published a Position Paper on the Senior Cycle in June 1991. There is a recognition in the paper that a single programme organised on the curriculum structure of the Leaving Certificate cannot cater for the range of needs which exist. The clear finding of the C.A.A.G. Report^(39a) is that the Leaving Certificate is inappropriate to one in four secondary school students. One of the N.C.C.A.’s three proposed aims of Senior Cycle Education is to

“prepare the young person in particular for the requirements of further education, for adult life and for working life”.

The introduction of an umbrella Certificate of Senior Cycle Education is proposed by the N.C.C.A. This structure would enable young people to combine Leaving Certificate subjects with Senior Certificate programmes and Transition Year Option in a very flexible manner. More recently again it has been proposed that a definite vocational stream be available at senior cycle for pupils for whom a mainly academic course would be unsuitable and that all vocational training programmes be progressively reconstituted under an extended apprenticeship system.

2.4. HELPING YOUNG PEOPLE WITH PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

“Assistance and professional training to be given to teachers to enable them to cope with the psychological problems of pupils together with the necessary professional back-up services”.

“Very often the teacher in the classroom is confronted and expected to deal with situations for which he or she has no special training”.

This is more true now in 1990 than it was six years ago. The I.N.T.O. Equality Officer pointed out to this researcher that some teachers now have to address the problem of child sex abuse in addition to the problems of emotional disturbance and indiscipline in the classroom and that little or no guidance on issues such as drug abuse, child sex abuse and psychological problems was available to teachers.

The response of the Department of Education in April 1990 in relation to child abuse was that

“a working group representative of the Department, the INTO, school management and parents was established in February 1989 to agree on procedures/guidelines for primary schools in handling cases of suspected child abuse. The Teachers’ Centres were asked to provide inservice training in the area after the procedures and guidelines were agreed. However final agreement on the guidelines (expected shortly) has taken longer than anticipated and the training programmes could not be put in place in the interim.

On the question of children with psychological problems, this topic is dealt with in the Diploma Course in Special Education and teachers are given leave of absence with pay to enable them to attend the programme. Substitutes in the schools are also paid by the Department. In addition, the topic is dealt with at special in-service courses for remedial teachers and for children with learning difficulties”.

As of April 1991 discusscions are on-going between management bodies the INTO and the National Parents Council in order to reach agreement on a set of guidelines for teachers in dealing with cases of child sex abuse. The first child abuse prevention programme has been piloted in some twelve schools in Dublin.

“guidance and counselling service needs to recognise the developmental nature of young peoples’ needs: that development is lifelong and that particular developmental tasks are appropriate at particular ages and stages”.

“It is hoped that guidance and counselling services may develop within primary schools. Such a development is indicated by the developmental nature of guidance and counselling, by the experiences of educational and clinical psychologists serving the needs of younger children and by the value of the guidance and counselling service at post-primary level”.

The Committee did not however include a recommendation to this effect in its report.

In a recent study of primary schools in the Mid-West Region commissioned by the Mid-Western Health Board and conducted by the Social Research Centre at N.I.H.E., Limerick,⁽⁴¹⁾ the following conclusions were drawn regarding the extent of the problem:

“The findings of the study suggest that, in an average class of 30 pupils, the teacher might expect to have around four children with psychological difficulties, four of low intelligence, two with severe reading backwardness and one with severe reading retardation. More importantly, however, the results of the study show that the extent of problems is significantly greater in one particular area - Urban 11 - compared to all other areas. The preponderance of problems among pupils of the disadvantaged schools emerges consistently whatever the nature of the difficulty investigated - whether it be difficulties in psychological adjustment, in intellectual functioning or in educational attainment - and whatever the mode of assessment - whether it be teachers’ perceptions or psychometric tests. The overall size of the problem clearly indicates the need for a comprehensive service for children of school-going age. The fact that a disproportionate number of problems are concentrated in the Urban 11 schools suggests that this area should receive particular attention. Indeed, these Urban II schools are already designated by the Department of Education as being in an educationally disadvantaged area and as such they have been allocated additional staff and resources in accordance with the Department’s policy on schools in these areas.

However, while there are some services presently available, the level of services would seem inadequate to deal with the overall size of the problem. Moreover, whatever services are being offered are provided in a fragmentary fashion with little co-ordination between different bodies involved in the area. The absence of services is most evident in the area of problems related to psychological adjustment. While 14% of pupils are exhibiting symptoms of emotional or conduct maladjustment, there are, however, few facilities either for identifying such problems or treating them. With respect to educational difficulties, while remedial help is being provided in urban schools, the overall service is clearly inadequate with many children attending rural schools which do not provide any remedial teaching while other schools have to make do with a shared service. The one problem which is being catered for is that of the intellectually impaired pupil. The present situation, then is that there are many children attending primary schools who are experiencing difficulties of psychological adjustment, of intellectual functioning and difficulties in reading but for whom little help is currently available.”

*The main recommendation arising from the study is that a pilot child guidance service be established, the aim of which is to provide a comprehensive, integrated service for children.

“Formal structures for co-operation in this area need to be established between the Department of Health on the one hand and the Department of Education on the other hand so that a coherent, integrated service may be developed. It is recognised that the level of co-operation required between the different bodies involved in the development of such a service is not easily achieved and requires much time, effort and commitment. It is suggested that the service be developed, established and maintained under the guidance of a Steering Committee. The service should adopt a holistic, inter-disciplinary approach so that the child’s problems are not dealt with in isolation but are assessed in the context of family, social and school circumstances and where overlap and interconnections between different problems are recognised and taken into account”. (my italics)

A psychological service on a pilot basis was established in the 1989/90 school year to serve primary schools in two areas - the Tallaght/Clondalkin area and South Tipperary. Three of the Departments’ psychologists have been assigned to the project and four more are being recruited. The aim of the project is to provide a well balanced psychological service which would be suitable as a model for use in primary schools generally in both rural and urban areas.

Up to now voluntary bodies such as Handicap Support Groups and Child Guidance Clinics are the sole agencies dealing with these problems at the stage of a child’s life when he/she is at Primary School.

As we shall see below when dealing with Guidance Counselling, the cut-backs have actually reduced the amount of time available for personal counselling in second level schools: yet it is fair to assume that the problems are more significant now than they were in 1984. The representatives of the second level Teacher Unions who were interviewed by the author are clearly of the opinion that the above recommendation of the Joint Oireachtas Committee is ’pie in the sky’ in the context of the cut-backs.

The Department official with responsibility in this area whom I interviewed suggests that the Guidance Counsellor is being seen more and more as a resource person in the school and that Guidance is now being seen as a team effort involving the teaching staff under the direction of the Guidance Counsellor. He draws attention to the very significant factor of school climate and suggests that there is a limit to what is expected of schools in this general area. He feels that

“there are matters relating to psycho-sexual development and matters relating to child sexual abuse, and to sexual offences/problems, which are not matters which are primarily for the school to deal with as/if they arise.

The role of the school, working on its own, in dealing with problems such as child sex abuse, emotional disturbance etc. It is, he feels, a question of the school working in co-operation with other agencies. He feels that -

“Schools and teachers should co-operate of course and teachers should be helped to have an understanding of the issues involved. Teachers need assistance in working out strategies for helping children and young people in school”.

There is a problem with regard to the availability of specialist counselling services: services such as those provided in the Mater Dei Adolescent Counselling Unit in North Dublin are not readily available to young people and their parents throughout the country, so it is difficult to advise schools on services to which young people may be referred when the need arises.

With regard to the In-service Training of teachers in relation to Substance Abuse Education one such course continues to be provided as a Summer School organised each year in conjunction with the Department of Health and the Mater Dei Adolescent Counselling Centre. It should be noted that the decision to continue with this Summer School for teachers on an annual basis was taken after the last 1984 Report for the Oireachtas Committee.

The Department of Education official with responsibility for this area suggests that the most effective model for substance abuse education involves integration of the topic into general provision in a developmental way with careful co-ordination at school level and support for the school in terms of INSET, resource materials and so on. He suggests that examples of practical approaches along these lines may be seen in individual schools and in some of the project for groups of schools supported by some of the Regional Health Boards.

The following developments have also taken place since 1984 in relation to Substance Abuse Education:

*In 1985 a set of video films and teaching materials on Substance Abuse was developed by the Department of Education and the Health Education Bureau and disseminated at seminars held throughout the country.

*The Health Promotion Unit in the Department of Health has available a broad range of materials on Alcohol and Drugs in its Resource Centre. No definite figures are available regarding the level of usage of this material by schools.

*A pilot educational project on Substance Abuse Education was established at the behest of the Department in the area of Dun Laoghaire VEC in 1986 and this linked in with similar projects in other European countries. This project is reaching the end of its pilot phase now.

*The Department has supported a substance abuse prevention project in schools in North East Dublin organised by the Mater Dei Counselling Centre. Funds for this project came from the Youth Section of the Department of Education.

*Similarly the Department via the Youth Section has supported the Ballymun Youth Acton Project, which includes elements of Substance Abuse Education.

*Various seminars on different aspects of Substance Abuse, and indeed of Health Education generally, have been supported by the Department or were organised with Departmental co-operation, a recent example being a series of nine day seminars organised in conjunction with the Department of Health and the Irish Cancer Society for teachers (primary and post-primary) and held at venues throughout the country during 1989 and completed early in 1990. These seminars dealt especially with smoking.

*The Department of Health and Education are at present planning a project on Substance Abuse Education which will include resource materials for schools, guidelines on developing programmes in schools and accompanying INSET.

*The Health Promotion Unit (See 2.5 below) has been training people in the Health Board areas to use the package “Drug Questions - Local Answers”. This is a five unit, 10-hour course for professionals and other interested people who deal with drug and alcohol abuse in their work. The Unit had trained 200 conveners up to May 1989 and a number of these are now running this course at local level. The concept is that, in their communities, the conveners bring together local people, such as teachers, doctors, youth workers, social workers, pharmacists, etc., who have an interest in doing something about their local drug problems. The course allows for a sharing of information and an examination of problems and issues that relate to drug abuse. It also allows opportunities for considering aspects of prevention and education that will contribute to minimising future problems.

*The Unit also supplies Alcohol Education kits for school use and it has three information booklets on the subject of drug abuse: “Facts about Drug Abuse in Ireland”, “Understanding Drugs” and “Solvent Abuse, A Guide for Professionals and Parents”’.⁽⁴²⁾

2.5 SEX EDUCATION

Pregnancy among school girls was much in the news around the time of the publication of the First Report of the Joint Committee in 1984. It was the view of the Committee that “the necessary steps to establish such a (sex education) programme should be put in train without delay”.

“the Minister for Education, speaking in the Dáil on 6th March 1984 on the ’Programme for Action in Education 1984-87’ indicated that assistance will be forthcoming for the Department in helping schools to plan sex education programmes and that an officer has since been appointed by the Health Education Bureau to advise and assist the Department on the design and introduction of a sex education programme”.

2.5.1 The Department’s Guidelines (1987)

The Department of Education published ’Guidelines on the Development of Sex/Relationships Education’ in 1987. These Guidelines, which were sent to the Authorities of post-primary schools, make one thing abundantly clear:

“The primary responsibility for sex/relationships education must rest with the parents. Parents have not only the right but also the duty to provide this education for their children. It is not part of the role of the school to take over the duties of the parents in this area. Still less is it the role of an agency such as the Department of Education to assume the responsibilities of parents”

I understand that this approach is consistent with that of the D.E.S. in England/Wales. The Guidelines recognise that

“most second level schools make provision now for sex/relationships education and that parents look to schools to help them fulfill their primary responsibility to educate their children in this matter”.

“that educators would view such education in the context of the education of the whole person and would not view it as a separate subject in the school curriculum”.

The emphasis is firmly placed on the primary role of the parents while recognising the Department of Education’s commitment to

“upholding the role of schools in this area as being one of supplementing the work of parents”

“the normal social, emotional and physiological aspects of sexuality should be included in a school programme”.

Particular stress is placed on the careful grading of such programmes to take account of the ages and levels of development of pupils.

“It would be unwise to have pupils discuss and consider issues which would be beyond their understanding at a particular age or stage of development”.

2.5.2 Some Developments since 1984

“there has been a much greater awareness of the need for education on sexuality from about the early eighties on. Post-primary schools had been developing programmes on their own and were aware of the needs of young people even before that. However, it has taken some time for many schools to overcome a reticence about including education on sexuality in a realistic way in their school programmes. A lot of preparation of the ground and development of school climates was due to the introduction of Guidance and Pastoral Care and was due as well to the various Curriculum Development Projects and the interest in Developmental Groupwork. These were important in relation to the development of appropriate methodologies. Developments in the area of Religious Education were of major importance as well. The Department’s circular sets out the Department’s view and classifies the role of the Department and provides guidance for schools”.

The J.O.C. (1984) Report refers to the appointment of ’An officer by the Health Education Bureau to advise and assist the Department on the design and introduction of a sex education programme’. According to the Department of Education.

’The outcome of this secondment was that various resources were researched and catalogued for the HEB. In addition a feasibility study on the involvement of parents in the development of school programmes on sexuality was carried out and reported on to the HEB. In fact this study showed that parents could co-operate very well with schools, that they were a positive influence and that teachers found the involvement of parents very satisfying and rewarding. Our experience of the development of the AIDS package offered further support for this view’.

There is widespread acceptance that most second-level schools are making provision for sex/relationships education either through programmes developed at school level or through one of the regional developments emanating from local Health Boards, school groupings or V.E.C.s. An Executive of the Joint Managerial Body believes that ’in practice virtually every school in the country has a programme’. The Crooks and McKiernan study,⁽⁴³⁾ lends support to this view, particularly regarding the proliferation of Pastoral Care Programmes. It has not been possible to locate up to date hard information regarding such provision. The Department of Education has recently sent a Questionnaire to schools regarding the provision of Aids education. The Department official with responsibility for this area reports that the response has been very positive.

The Health Promotion Unit of the Department of Health and the Psychological Services section of the Department of Education have collaborated on the preparation of AIDS Education Resource Materials for use at second level. These materials were piloted in the Autumn term 1989 and have been made available to all schools in 1990. INSET provision in the period up to Christmas 1990 consisted of six ’one day’ seminars at local level on the use and integration of the materials and seven more were planned for the Christmas - Easter period. It is the intention of the Department of Education to continue with this INSET programme until all post primary schools have an opportunity to send teachers to such seminars. The overall approach to the issue of AIDS Education has been welcomed and praised by the ASTI, the TUI, the National Parents Councils and the various managerial bodies.

Generally speaking it would appear that two of the Teacher Unions (I.N.T.O., T.U.I.) are not happy with the present approach to the issue of Sex/Relationships Education. The T.U.I wants a comprehensive national policy which includes the preparation of an agreed syllabus. The I.N.T.O. believes that sex education should be part of the curriculum of all pupils and that as part of its overall curriculum plan each school should have a policy on the teaching of sex education. The policy should set out the aims of sex education in the school and describe the topics to be taught, their sequencing and depth of treatment at each level, and teaching methods and materials to be employed. The policy should be formulated in consultation with the School Board of Management and parents. The I.N.T.O. has presented its policy document on Sex Education to both parents and management and to the Episcopal Commission.

As seen above⁽⁴⁴⁾ the main recommendation of the Primary Review Body in relation to Health Education was that it ’should be treated as a cross-curricular theme in primary schools’. It remains to be seen how the Catholic Hierarchy will respond to the views of the INTO and the Primary Curriculum Review Body.

The Chief Executive of the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment has indicated to this researcher that the Council plans to address the issue of Health and Sex Education. He also feels that the new Junior Certificate Science Syllabus includes learning experiences that are relevant to the topic. The same problem arises as we have seen above in relation to skills for living - Science is not a core subject.

The co-ordination of sex-relationships education provision across the school curriculum is an important issue for each school as an organisation. This makes it an important issue for school management.

It is this researcher’s experience that the actual involvement of parents in school programmes is difficult to achieve and that parents are for more likely to intervene in order to disagree with something that is being done than to complain about a failure to act.

The Committee rightly draws attention to the tendency to think only in terms of girls’ schools when sex education is being considered. It would be of considerable interest to carry out research into the comparative levels of provision of sex education in boys’ and girls’ secondary schools.

The Department of Health favours the inclusion of a comprehensive Health Education programme on the curriculum. The establishment of a Chair of Health Studies at University College, Galway might help to give health promotion a higher national profile.

2.5.3 Teenage Pregnancies

The Joint Oireachtas Committee report (1984) refers to the incidence of teenage pregnancies. The statistics in Table 16 below suggest that the proportion has been holding at 4-5% throughout this decade.

The absolute numbers of such births outside of marriage have actually increased by 500 (approx.) per annum between 1980 and 1989; yet births outside of marriage to teenagers now form only 29.5% of all such births as against 38.4% in 1980.

2.5.4 New Structures

Specific reference is made in the 1984 report of the Joint Committee to the work and role of the Health Education Bureau which has since been absorbed into the Health Promotion Unit. This Unit is staffed by some twelve full-time Department of Health Officers under the direction of a Principal Officer of that Department. The Unit has the services of an Adviser who is on secondment from a teaching post at second-level; it also employs other experts on a contract basis from time to time for specific projects.

The new structures created in this area are regarded by the Principal Officer in charge of the Health Promotion Unit as an improvement because of the closer working relationship that now exists between the Departments of Health and Education. The problem faced by the H.E.B. was that it had no statutory right of access to schools and was largely dependent on their goodwill (and on the extent of their perceived need). The National Health Promotion structure, established in January 1988, is presented below. It comprises a Cabinet Sub-Committee, an Advisory Council on Health Promotion and an Executive Health Promotion Unit within the Department of Health.

Information on the workings of the new structure was supplied by the Health Promotion Unit and is included at Appendix 2.

2.5.5 An External Perspective

Mr Trefor Williams, Southampton University, visited the Republic of Ireland in connection with an E/C Project on Health Education during February - March 1988. Mr Williams had the following comments to make about curriculum developments in Health education in the Republic of Ireland:⁽⁴⁵⁾

“There have been a considerable number of projects and developments throughout the country which have been very largely been initiated or financially supported by the Regional Health Boards. While it is true to say that this work has been also heavily supported by the Department of Education and its Inspectors, it is the Health Boards and the Health Education Bureau who have provided the stimulus and vision for the majority of the projects”.

Mr Williams referred to the ’small but very volatile oppositon to the teaching methods used in health education programmes in Ireland’. He concluded that ’the matter is still not entirely resolved but provides an interesting insight into the difficulties with which innovators are faced in attempting to develop ’new’ programmes of health and social education’.

“1.The Irish Educational establishment is going through an interesting if not challenging period of reform in both its primary and second level schools. The tenor of these developments is very much in accord with those occurring in other European countries which, on the one hand, show eagerness for technological and scientific advance, but also show concern for the social and environmental changes which inevitably follow. In between these converging aspects of education lies the need for personal, social and decision making skills necessary for a democratic society. Health education clearly has an important role in this:

2.There is much of interest and importance underway in school health education upon which if need be national guidelines can be based. There is undoubtedly a substantial reservoir of experience and expertise spread over the regions which could be brought to coincide with the activities of

(ii)The Curriculum Development activities at the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment related to the Second Level schools.

3.As has been recognised by the several health education projects already mentioned, even the most carefully prepared curricula will remain sterile unless they are energised by training programmes and dissemination strategies. The necessary training skills do clearly exist but require careful organisation and financing from central or regional bodies.

4.The interests of school health education both at grass roots and as a national presence, can be particularly well served by the formation of an Irish National Association of School Health Education. This is already being discussed by groups of teachers throughout the region which bodes well for the development of professional attitudes to school health education”.

2.5.6 The Primary Curriculum Review/Junior Certificate

The general tendency today is to locate Sex Education in the broader context of Health Education. The Report of the Review Body on the Primary Curriculum states that:⁽⁴⁶⁾

“The existing programme in Health Education is part of the Physical Education curriculum. Information on implementation of the programme is hard to come by. A questionnaire given by Broderick (1985) to primary school principls suggested that about two-thirds of primary schools have some sort of Health Education programme. In many instances the topics were covered informally and the depth of coverage is hard to gauge”.

Fontes, Kellaghan et al found in their study⁽⁴⁷⁾ that the Physical Education syllabus in the new curriculum had been poorly implemented.

“A great many countries now have new programmes of Health Education, including England, France, United States, West Germany and Denmark. In Ireland a number of the Health Boards have taken initiatives for Health Education programmes of the new variety. These pilot projects have usually involved collabortion between Health Board personnel, teachers and inspectors. In some instances, teachers have been seconded to work full-time on the development of such programmes.

These newer programmes are different from earlier ones in their conceptions of Health Education and also in the proposed methodologies. The following features of these programmes are central:

(ii)the inculation of a value system which promotes positive attitudes towards good health.

(iii)the development of children’s identify and self-concept as the self-image is thought to determine responses to many situations that are of particular significance for health.

(iv)enabling the pupil to make conscious choices in favour of good health practices.

(v)the adoption by the pupil of a healthy life-style. Modern programmes acknowledge that it would be impossible to realise aims such as these by means of didactic teaching alone. Therefore they include an emphasis on activities such as team-work, pupil research, projects, discussion and role-playing. The fostering of respect for others, their rights, persons and property is seen as a key goal. Mutual trust and a willingness to share are frequently put forward as important outcomes.

*By its nature Health Education is integrated with and draws on other school subjects. Of particular relevance are physical education, civics, science, religious education, social and environmental studies.

*There has been a particular effort in Health Education programmes to match materials and objectives with the developmental level of pupils

*Because Health Education involves value-judgements, the successful programmes have provided for full participation and involvement of parents”.

The Recommendations of the Primary Curriculum Review Committee are as follows⁽⁴⁹⁾

It is the view of the Review Body that Health Education is of sufficient importance to warrant inclusion on the primary school curriculum. However, the constraints on time are such that the addition of another subject would introduce an element of ’overload’ that would not be helpful and can only lessen the instruction time available for existing subjects”.

*That Health Education should be treated as a cross-curricular theme in primary schools. This strategy will involve a precise identification of the aims, objectives and content and the pinpointing of various existing curricular areas in which these objectives would be catered for most appropriately.

*All curricular developments in this area should be co-ordinated, supervised and monitored by Department of Education authorities.

*While the Review Body does not have the opportunity to give adequate attention to such matters, we recommend an examination of issues relating to

*Parents should be given the opportunity to express opinions on the content of Health Education programmes and to influence their development.

*The curriculum in Health Education should be particularly sensitive to the need to match materials with pupils’ level of development.

*There is a particular need for in-service programmes to make teachers aware of the range of informal methods that are appropriate for some of the learning objectives in this area.

*In making decisions regarding these areas, we recommend the broadest consultation, since Health Education involves moral, educational and health issues”.

The Primary Review has, then, recommended that Health Education be treated as a cross-curricular theme. This is echoed in the Guide to the Junior Certificate which identifies three examples of cross curricular themes. Health education is the first such theme mentioned, along with media education and civic and political education.

‘A conscious attempt is made in the Junior Certificate programme to identify areas of linkage between different subjects. Common themes and issues are often treated in different but complementary ways. For instance: health education: opportunities arise in different subjects such as Science, Religious Education, Home Economics and Physical Education’.⁽⁵⁰⁾

2.5.7 The Minister’s Position

The Minister for Education outlined her position on Health Education provision in general and on AIDS education in particular in an address towards the end of 1989:

“Since becoming Minister for Education I have been particularly concerned about the need for schools to provide appropriate personal and social development programmes for our young people. I have frequently discussed the need for such programmes with parents, teachers, managers and religious interests. It is necessary to develop appropriate strategies in this area and the wishes of parents must be recognised and respected in their design and implementation.

I have regular discussions with my colleague the Minister for Health in relation to the Health Education aspects of such programmes. Post-primary school authorities have been requested to co-operate with local Health Board personnel and the Directors of Community Care teams in developing school policy and practice in relation to health education and in particular to informing pupils about the risk of infection by the Aids virus.

In this regard an inter-departmental liaison group of officials from my Department and the Department of Health produced draft educational materials suitable as resource materials for teachers on the topic of Aids and they are currently being piloted in twenty post-primary schools. It is stressed that these materials are not prescriptive materials - clearly it would not be appropriate to issue directives to schools and teachers on the approach to be followed. It is essential that the lessons given by each teacher on this topic are consistent with the ethos and philosophy of the school and in accordance with school policy.

The use of the draft materials is being carefully monitored and evaluated and a seminar for teachers and principals of the participating schools will be held in December to review implementation. It is planned that the analysis of the evaluative procedures will be complete by the end of 1989 and resource materials in their final form will be made available to all schools early in 1990”.

2.5.8 Relevant findings of a Pilot Project At Primary Level

A Pilot Project on Social and Health Education began in primary schools in the Mid-Western Health Board Region in 1984. An extensive survey of the views of management and teachers on the place of the Social and Health education in Primary Schools was conducted by the Project in January, 1985.⁽⁵¹⁾ The questionnaire sought the opinions of teachers on the proposed aim of the programme. The questions included:

(a)Teachers believed that Health Education should continue to be included in the Primary School Curriculum. It should, however, be given a more central position than it currently occupies and should not be included in the Physical Education guidelines. To do so is to suggest that opportunities to teach health education and social education are confined only to Physical Education classes. To do so is to ignore the important contribution Social and Health Education makes to the whole development of the child: physical, mental, social, spiritual and emotional.

(b)Social and Health Education should more appropriately be dealt with through an inter-disciplinary, cross-curricular approach.

(c)Informal and incidental references should be made to health messages at opportune times during the school day.

(d)There should be formal time-tabling of classes in Social and Health Education during the school day supplemented by incidental references to health education messages.

(e)The existing curriculum guidelines are inadequate in that little assistance is given to teachers on how schemes of work might be prepared. A more comprehensive approach to the teaching of Social and Health Education was called for. Specific guidelines in the form of themes, objectives, educational activities, resources and children’s workcards were deemed to be necessary. These should be made available in the form of a teacher’s handbook of Social and Health Education.

(f)Appropriate training must be made available to the teachers by trained personnel in areas relating to the Social and Health education of children.

It was decided to develop themes, objectives, educational activities and resources in relation to the following six units which were to comprise the Social and Health Education programme which would cater for all classes in the Primary school: Nutrition; Hygiene; Safety; Personal Awareness; Medical Studies; Environmental Care.

The local Department of Education Inspectorate was consulted in relation to the choice of particular Primary Schools that might most effectively pilot any programme materials produced. Ten schools, representative of the range of Primary schools in the Board’s area (later to be increased to fourteen) were invited to participate in the piloting and a assessment of various draft programmes over a three year period. Consultation between the Principal and Assistant teaching staff of these schools and the Health Education Officer took place and draft materials were distributed in April 1986, marking the beginning of the pilot phase of the programme. In the light of teachers’ responses to the questionnaire, the working party decided that an inter-disciplinary, cross curricular approach would be the most appropriate method of teaching Social and Health Education.

The Primary Curriculum Review Committee’s recommendations on Health Education (2.5.3 above) include what appears to be a direct response to the findings of the Project’s research. The findings are indeed also consistent with the Teachers’ Handbook (1971) where it states that⁽⁵²⁾

“The syllabus envisages the integration of Health Education with all sections of the curriculum in order to promote the cultivation of good health habits and high standards of hygiene”.

A Department of Education official, commenting on an earlier draft of this report, said that the official programme as laid out in the Teachers’ Handbook

“covers personal hygience, bodily functions, use of school facilities, personal and road safety, food and health needs including coverage of smoking, alcohol and drug issues. Within this format there is provision for the imparting of knowledge on healthy attitudes to sex - it is a matter for each school to decide on implementation in this regard, subject to agreement with the Board of Management, parents and teachers”.

According to information supplied by the Pilot Project under discussion, research to date indicates that there is widespread acceptance on the part of teachers, management and staff of the materials and the approach adopted by the Project to date. This Project represents an interesting example of the effective involvement of health professionals in the community care areas in the development of the programme and in the provision of in-service education for the participating teachers.

In connection with this Project a detailed enquiry in the form of a survey of parental attitudes to Social and Health Education in the primary school was conducted by the Health Education Officer in October 1986. The response to the survey indicated a very high level of interest in and support for all aspects of the existing programme materials. Parents also expressed an interest in the use schools made of them together with the means by which they would be informed of and involved in their implementation. The Project strongly recommends to the Principal and Assistant Teachers of the pilot schools the following matters relating to school policy:

(a)Each school, in developing and implementing its own policy on Social and Health Education, should give careful consideration to and have regard for the primary role of parents as educators of their children.

(b)Parents should be consulted at regular intervals on the content of the programme and on the progress made by teachers in the teaching of it.

(c)Parents should be encouraged to participate in and support the work of the school in this area.

The results of a U.K. survey to ascertain adult levels of approval, conducted by the Health Education Association (Great Britain) in connection with the Primary Schools project for the inclusion in the curriculum of 43 listed health education topics, show that the high levels of approval for the majority of the topics are a very strong affirmation of the belief by all three adult groups (Parents, Teachers, Health Care Representatives) that health education in its widest sense has a vital place in young peoples’ school experience.

This Project, like so many other, has come to realise the centrality of in-service training for teachers:

“Based on the experiences of the writing team and the Health Education Officer in implementing programme materials it is believed that in-service education is vital for all teachers who undertake the teaching of the area. Thus, the Project Management plans to make the published materials available only to those teachers who have successfully completed an introductory course.

The experience of the Working Party and the Health Education Officer has been that comprehensive and on going pre-service and in-service training courses for teachers in the area of Social and Health Education are pre-requisites to the effective implementation of the programme in schools. During such courses, the provision of background knowledge and imparting of skills can take place; assistance in encouraging and maintaining home-school links is offered; the formulation by each school of its own policy with regard to Social and Health education can be aided; resource materials can be reviewed; teachers can have first-hand experience of organising schemes of work using the most effective and inter-disciplinary, cross-curricular approaches.

Indeed, such in-service education is seen as vital if teachers are to be made aware of the wide scope of the programme and appreciate the abundance of themes and activities designed for each class”.

2.6 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION / E/C ACTION RESEARCH PROJECT

2.6.1 The Programme

Following the adoption of an E/C Resolution in June 1985 which contained an Action Programme on Equal Opportunities for girls and boys in education, member states were invited to participate in an Action Research project designed ’to stimulate the interest and encourage the participation of girls in school activities related to the new technologies’. The initiatives were to be tailored to the needs of individual member states but based on the ’Girls into Science and Technology’ (G.I.S.T) project which was implemented in the Manchester area in the early 1980’s and were to be implemented in a small number of schools with joint funding from the E/C and the Department of Education.

In Ireland the Project is directed by a Department of Education Inspector from Psychological Services. Four schools were invited to become involved during the Pilot Phase (1987-89): a girls’ secondary, a girls’ Vocational, a Community School (all in the Dublin area) and a Comprehensive school. The strategy used involved building the Project around an individual in each school who was particularly committed to equal opportunities and/or skilled in non-traditional areas e.g. computers. A teacher was appointed to co-ordinate the project in each school and the guidance counsellor was also asked to participate since guidance was perceived as being central to the project One class group participated in each school during 1987-89 with the exception of one school where all second years were targetted during 1988-89. The guidelines for the Irish Project were that the programme would have to:

*attempt to reverse any negative attitudes girls might have towards to the role and employment of women;

*provide encouragement and support for girls who may wish to pursue training courses in technological areas of study.

The programme for 1987-1989 consisted of five modules of approximately 10 hours duration each: Use of Media and Equipment: Computers (general with some LOGO programming); Electrical Gadgets; Model Making; Computer Applications (Word Processing, Data Base, Control Systems). There is provision for an on-going guidance input and for the involvement of parents and role models.

The programme was subsequently revised and it was provided in some 20 additional schools during 1990-91.

2.6.2 Main conclusions of External Evaluation

The Final External Evaluation Report on this Project (G.N.T.) was available in December 1989.⁽⁵³⁾ The report concluded that:

1.The Project has developed a programme which has a good balance of practical and awareness raising activities. This programme has been very effective in raising students’ (and especially girls’) awareness of gender issues. While it would be unrealistic to expect that a programme of such short duration could have significantly affected student behaviour (in terms of career and subject choice), some positive outcomes have been observed in this regard. Two components of the programme were particularly well received by students: the visits and the computer related work.

2.Staff development outcomes for participating teachers were quite positive: some positive effects were also reported for school principals. The video is another example of a concrete outcome: it testifies to the staff development outcomes and should be very useful at the stage of controlled dissemination.

3.Lessons learned constitute a vital part of the findings in relation to any curriculum development Project. The lessons learned in relation to the GNT Project are best considered under two headings: national level; project level.

*the importance of improved lines of communication between projects and relevant national agencies such as the Department of Education and the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment;

*the importance of close co-operation between projects working on related issues e.g. the GNT Project and the project to increase female participation rates in Physics and Chemistry.

*the need to improve levels of inter-institutional cooperation between neighbouring schools to enable girls and boys in single sex schools to choose non-traditional subjects.

*the need to give consideration to a modular approach to curriculum and assessment. How else can the NCCA’s aspiration that every young person up to the age of 15 should experience a balanced curriculum be achieved ?

*the importance of support structures such as special grants, INSET provision and a national policy of whole school review along the lines of Northern Ireland. Such support makes ’positive discrimination’ feasible.

*the importance of integrating gender equity into a broader framework, as occurred during the 11-16 Curriculum Review in Northern Ireland, in order to avoid the danger of isolating it. The transfer of responsibility for GNT activities to the National Policy Co-ordinator (NPC) for New Information Technologies (NIT) has the potential to realise this objective: the achievement of such integration will require effective collaboration between the NPC’s for Equal Opportunities and NIT.

2.6.3 Main Recommendations of the Final Evaluation Report

*That the programme be disseminated in a controlled manner to a cross-section of schools during 1990-91. During this phase the favourable circumstances of the pilot phase should not obtain: the intention should be to incorporate the programme into existing junior cycle subjects for all second year students thus involving a wide range of teachers and students; there will be no material support for participating schools; schools will be required to organise their own visits.

*It is important that this phase be monitored closely by the proposed part-time regional Field Officers. It is recommended that the following issues should be the focus of their evaluation:

—the effectiveness of the incorporation of the programme into existing subjects. This is the most important issue to be monitored.

—the extent to which visits (both ways) and parental involvement are included by schools and the strategies used.

—the extent to which whole school policy review with a focus on gender equity is engaged in by participating schools.

*In the event that the strategy of incorporating the programme into existing junior cycle subjects is found to be ineffective it is recommended that a set of guidelines be drawn up for teachers of all junior cycle subjects suggesting ways in which gender issues might be raised in the context of the existing syllabi. Such an approach would have to be placed in the broader context of whole school review.

*The relationship between this programme and other related initiatives e.g. the Project to increase the participation rates of girls in Leaving Certificate Physics and Chemistry and Junior Certificate Technology should be developed,.

2.6.4 Research into Teachers’ Attitudes

The External Evaluation report includes the findings of research into the attitudes of (a) teachers in the four Project schools and (b) of a sample of parents of Project participants to gender issues.⁽⁵⁴⁾ A total of 81 teachers (70% female, 30% male) in Project schools returned the questionnaire which is available from the author. The overall mean scores for the sexist items are low (i.e. in a non-sexist direction). Respondents were particularly non-sexist in relation to the following items:

While their scores were also in the non-sexist direction the scores for male teachers were somewhat more sexist than those for female teachers. Statistically significant differences emerged between male and female teachers in relation to four items (Note: the number of male respondents was low):

2.6.5 Research into Parents’ Attitudes

The main findings of the Evaluation Report from structured interviews with 39 parents of young women participating in the Project may also be of some interest to the Committee. The sample of parents was determined as follows: participating teachers were asked to identify the five students who were mostpositively disposed towards equal opportunities and the five students who were least positively disposed towards equal opportunities in their classes. The parents of those perceived as being well disposed are referred to as ’positive parents’. This is simply a nomenclature device. The conclusion from this research into parents’ attitudes to gender issues are as follows:

1. Subjects

Parents were extremely positive in their reactions to female participation in Metalwork, Woodwork and Technical Drawing and male participation in Home Economics and to the importance for all students of learning computers. They were not as positive about the importance for all children of learning Science though 67% did agree that it was important. Some interesting differences emerged in relation to the learning of Science between the positive and negative parents: the positive parents were considerably more in favour.

2. General Attitudes

Parents’ responses to the 9 attitude statements at Q.15 on the interview schedule (see Appendix 4) revealed that they were quite non-sexist in their attitudes. There was hardly any difference whatsoever between the mean scores for positive and negative parents in relation to these items.

3. Household Jobs

Parents were asked whether their daughters usually did a number of household jobs (Q.18). The differences in mean scores for doing traditionally male and female jobs predictably suggest that females seldom if ever do the traditionally male jobs at home and that they do the traditionally female jobs either often or sometimes. Very significant differences were found between positive and negative parents for doing minor repairs (e.g.bicycle, replacing a pane of glass) while the differences in relation to replacing a fuse and painting/decorating were almost significant. In all three cases the participation rates of the daughters of positive parents were higher than for the daughters of negative parents. Almost 80% of all parents interviewed felt that in general boys and girls should help with the same household jobs. The positive parents were considerably less stereotyped in their response to this question - 90% agreed with the statement.

4. Career Choice

When parents were invited to rate the suitability of certain careers for their daughters on a five point scale the mean rating per item was, not surprisingly, considerably lower for traditionally female careers than for traditionally male careers (1=very suitable, 5=very unsuitable). The positive parents are just slightly less stereotyped than the negative parents when it comes to rating the suitability of traditionally male careers but the negative parents are considerably more in favour of traditionally female careers than their positive counterparts. These differences are particularly marked for the following careers: nurse; secretary; social worker; hairdresser. The positive parents are somewhat more in favour of two traditionally male careers in particular - draughtsman, electrician. All respondents said they would not be embarrassed or disappointed if their daughter became a motor mechanic.

5. Talk about Gender and Work

41% of the parents affirmed that their daughter did talk about mens’/womens’ work at home. The positive parents reported a higher incidence of such talk and 62% of parents responding positively to this question said that this had begun to happen within the past year (i.e. since the Project began). The proportion of daughters who were reported as talking about technology/computers at home was higher with 89% of them having started to do so since the Project started.

6. Role of Schools

90% of all parents felt that their daughters should be encouraged, while at school, to do jobs traditionally done by men while 75% of them felt that this was actually encouraged at their daughters’ school. The positive parents were slightly more aware of this aspect of the Project than the negative parents.

2.7 Gender and Physical Education

The Physical Education Association of Ireland (P.E.A.I.) published its survey on gender and Physical Education in February 1991⁽⁵⁵⁾. The research findings include:

*Girls displayed an alarming tendency to be unhappy about important aspects of their bodies. The study showed that boys perceived themselves as being more involved, talented, intelligent, good-looking, co-ordinated, free from stress and more achievement oriented than girls.

In view of the possible repercussions for girls of such unhappiness with their own bodies the report concluded that ’there are strong implications for physical education teachers in all of this’.

*An over emphasis on competition and winning increases sex differentiation in participation patterns - redolent of Lynch’s findings regarding the hidden curriculum.

*Respondents regarded team games of a physical contact nature as being almost exclusively male as well as golf, karate and weight training. Individual and creative activities were more likely to be associated with girls (yoga, dance, gymnastics) whilst the only team game associated with girls was netball. The sports made available in schools to boys and not to girls are generally competitive team sports which get extensive media coverage.

*Badminton, outdoor pursuits, volleyball and swimming emerged as the most gender neutral activities.

*The report suggests that, while physical education teachers can effect some imrovement by taking the research findings on board when planning, ‘the overall pattern which emerged in relation to physical activities is unlikely to be altered on a broader scale without action which focuses on the overall organisation of sport and specifically on club structures’.

*Student respondents overwhelmingly favoured mixed physical education classes and they also supported the principle of equal provision to both sexes. The sex of the teacher was not important to students who would appear to see no point in the common practice of employing same sex physical education teachers.

*Teachers themselves were undecided on whether P.E. classes should be mixed or not. The Report states that ‘on the basis of the overall results of this study it seems that there is no simple answer to this question’. The overall conclusion is that ‘altering the grouping patterns of pupils by sex alone is not enough … often sex is chosen as a basis for grouping on groundless assumptions. The bottom line would seem to be that grouping for pupils should be based on a consideration of the all round development of the pupil and as such requires careful consideration at all stages of the school going cycle’.

*The study found a significant difference in the amount of time and in the range of activities provided for boys and girls in extra curricular sporting activities. Teachers reported that boys received an average 5.5 hours per week of extra curricular activity whilst the equivalent figure for girls was 4.7 hours per week. The difference was found to be statistically significant. Girls were perceived by peers as excusing themselves from P.E. class more often than boys. Over one-third of teacher respondents accepted menstruation as a valid excuse for non-participation in class.

The overall conclusion of the study is that ‘there is a link between physical education teaching in Irish post-primary schools and the reinforcement of gender role stereotypes. This finding is supported by the literature on physical education teaching’.

3. TEACHER EDUCATION

3.1 Pre-Service Teacher Education

The Joint Committee expressed concern in its 1984 Report regarding the treatment of gender issues in the preparation of teachers and it recommended that

’Colleges of Education and the Universities include all aspects of equality and the elimination of sexism in the preparation of students for the teaching profession’

The Department of Education responded to this recommendation by sending copies of the Committee’s Report to all teacher training establishments in the country. At the request of the Department of Education a module on sexism in textbooks is included the curriculum in Colleges of Education for primary teachers; the staff in these college on have been requested to pay attention to gender issues when teaching their courses. An optional module on gender issues is offered to students at Thomond College of Education.

The Association for Teacher Education in Europe (ATEE) published a Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education with Guidelines for Action in relation to Equal Opportunities for Boys and Girls in Education in October 1987. This includes two approaches at the Pre-Service level in recognition of the fact that teacher education programmes differ in the structure they adopt; some programmes are based on a thematic approach, others on a disciplinary model. (This is the dominant model here). The framework provided by ATEE should be of considerable value to planners who wish to incorporate treatment of gender issues in their programmes.

The Programme for Action in Education (1984-87) stated that ‘In the review of teacher training programmes ..... the need to make teachers more aware of their role in eliminating sexism in education will be emphasised’.⁽⁵⁶⁾ This was followed up by the statement in the First Progress Report of 1985 that a review of pre-service teacher training programmes has been commissioned with regard to the obligations of teachers to avoid sexism and sex stereotyping in the classroom’.⁽⁵⁷⁾ According to information provided by the author the summary results of the first phase of this research are as follows:

1.No institution can be said to have a coherent and systematic programme on gender issues.

2.Gender issues appear in the curriculum of most of the institutions in at least an indirect or occasional fashion.

3.The level of awareness among staff is described by most Presidents/Professors as high though this is not reflected in the curriculum.

4.The existence of gender issues in the curriculum is related to the appointment of particular individuals with an intellectual commitment to these issues.

According to the Department of Education the up to date position regarding pre-service teacher education as of April 1990 is as follows:

“In the Colleges of Education for primary teachers attention is drawn to sexism and sex-stereotyping in the methodology of the core subjects, especially in relation to school textbooks and ancillary reading materials, and students are made aware of classroom practices and attitudes which serve to maintain traditional barriers and prejudices”.

It is of some interest to consider here also the number of young women entering/graduating from Thomond College of Education in the areas of Wood and Building/Metal and Engineering, given the low uptake of these subjects by girls and the importance of female role models for students in second level schools.

1.To date four females have graduated from the College with a Bachelor of Technology (Education) Degree in Wood and Building Technology while one female has graduated with a Bachelor of Technology (Education) Degree in Metalwork and Engineering.

2.The numbers of women currently (1990-91) taking these two courses are as follows: Metal and Engineering: 1 (3rd Year), Wood and Building: 1 (4th Year)

3.2 The TENET Project

There has been a significant development recently in relation to the treatment of gender issues at both the pre and in-service stages in the form of an E/C Action Research Project to Integrate Equal Opportunities in the area of Teacher Education - TENET. This project, the European co-ordinator of which is a Lecturer in Education in Thomond College of Education, Limerick, began in 1988 and will end in 1991. Six of these initiatives are located in the Republic of Ireland. The total Budget for the Irish Projects during 1988-89 was 36,000 ECUs (5 projects then); the direct cost of each Project to the Department of Education is £30,000 per annum (excluding staff costs). One of these projects is at the pre-service level, four relate to in-service training and one is focussing on classroom interventions. The six projects are briefly described below:

“The projects can be said to have been extremely worthwhile in that the specific aims of all six projects have been realised in a very satisfactory manner”.

The report of the co-ordinator discusses the achievements of the six projects:⁽⁵⁹⁾

The St Patrick’s College of Education preservice project achieved its major goal in that “the children’s perceptions of gender stereotypes were changed significantly - the hard and fast stereotypes were softened”. The participating students and their teacher/mentors were pleased with the experience and a large quantity of useful classroom materials were produced and developed.

The Department of Education Project achieved its aims of increasing and deepening awareness of equal opportunities among all its participants. Practices were altered so as to promote equality and attitudes and values were changed. The number of schools increased from 7 to 21, the number of teachers from 84 to 185 and the number of pupils from 2,456 to 5,300. A large number of unintended outcomes relating to skills developed by teachers and pupils were also reported.

The objectives of the inservice programme for post primary teachers run by Thomond College of Education were also achieved and materials were produced which provided a worthwhile learning experience for participating teachers and students. The project benefitted teachers in increased confidence, improved organisational skills and willingness to try new strategies.

The University College Dublin preservice project was very worthwhile insofar as the course offered had measurable positive effects on the attitudes of participating students, it increased their factual knowledge of gender equity and was useful in guiding student teachers on how to eliminate gender inequalities at classroom level.

The inservice programme for postprimary teachers run by the Teachers Union of Ireland has also been successful in achieving its aims and while recognising the importance of re-educating parents, pupils and employers has taken some practical steps in beginning this process. Schools which did not traditionally offer “real” choice to their pupils are now convinced of the importance of doing so.

Worthwhileness of the Guidance Counsellors of Ireland project can be inferred from the achievement of its goals and from the proposals of the participants to seek funding for a continuation of the project in the coming year. Participants are now anxious to take action in their schools”.

The discernable common trend in all six projects consists of a focus on awareness raising and on a re-examination of traditional attitudes. In her report for 1989-90 the National Co-ordinator cites the findings of external evaluation regarding the importance attached by teachers to gender equality in education. Respondents were invited to rank seven current educational issues in order of importance. The following Table outlines the findings.⁽⁶⁰⁾

TABLE 17 : Proportions of Teachers Giving a Ranking of ’Most Important’ to Seven Educational Issues

“Teacher-pupil ratios are ranked as most important by the vast majority of respondents. It is clear that, until the very high class sizes - especially in Irish primary schools - are reduced, all other educational issues will be pushed into the background. This again has implications for dissemination, as it creates obstacles to the implementation of programmes dealing with equality issues. The low priority attached to gender equality reflects the lack of information and awareness upon which comment has already been made. Indeed just 39.2% (38) respondents put gender equality anywhere in their top three rankings. This may well indicate a feeling among some respondents that there is not a real problem of gender inequality in Irish education. Again this points to the need for a very strong informational and consciousness raising component in the dissemination phase”.

“The importance of comprehensive inservice programmes becomes all the more obvious when we consider that the respondents in the survey here represent a group whose level of commitment is already high and who have already been exposed to materials relating to gender equality. The success of the dissemination phase will depend on inservice which is widespread, sustained and adequately funded to provide the necessary information and materials”.

The above findings correspond with this author’s experience when teachers are invited to identify educational priorities. In the course of working on INSET with teachers from some eighty second level schools using the instrument at Appendix 3 it has been my experience that teachers consistently rate gender equity as one of their lowest priorities.

At the TENET National Dissemination Conference which took place in Dublin on October 11, 1991, the participants heard papers which dealt with the main outcomes of the pilot phase of the Project. The National Co-ordinator re-iterated the vital importance of awareness raising at pre and in-service levels as well as the importance of an action-research approach and of learning from practice in other countries. She identified the need for further research in areas such as levels of awareness and understanding; classroom interaction; pupil self image; development of resource material.

3.3 IN-SERVICE TRAINING

“having regard to current restraints on expenditure, that this area, already so long neglected, will not receive the priority it deserves. If that were to happen, progress in education would be set back still further with adverse effects on teachers and pupils”.

3.3.1 Department of Education In-Service Initiatives relating to Gender

The latest Progress Report available on the implementation of the Programme for Action in Education (1984-1987) was published in 1986. The section on ’Elimination of Sexism’ states:⁽⁶¹⁾

“The need to avoid sexism and sex-stereotyping in schools is underlined at Summer in-service courses organized by the Department and at discussions with the principal and staff prior to submission by the Inspector of a school report. A total of 746 school report was furnished in the school year 1985-86”. (Note: School Reports are submitted in relation to primary schools only).

The recent Co-ordinated Report on The Development of Equal Opportunities, March 1987 September 1988 states:⁽⁶²⁾

“The need to avoid sexism and sex-stereotyping in schools continues to be stressed at in-service courses for teachers and school principals organized or the Department - a module on Sexism and Sex Stereotyping in Primary Education was included in all in-service courses for primary teachers organized by inspectors in Summer 1988. The matter is also generally raised at discussions with the principal and staff prior to submission by the inspector of a School Report. A total of 736 school reports were furnished in the school year 1986-87. Issues relating to gender equity continue to be covered generally in in-service courses for post-primary teachers as well as at specific seminars and courses being organized in this area”.

It would appear that there has not been any serious attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of such inputs. The INTO Equality Officer suggested in August 1989 that:

“The Department should evaluate the responses of teachers to the courses and should provide inservice for the inspectorate. We are not aware that a module is included on all courses provided for assistant teachers”.

“All inservice summer courses at primary level since 1988 have included a module on sexism and sex-stereotyping in primary schools; and it is intended that all future courses should include such a module. The following documents are used to plan these sessions:

“While it had not been the practice up to now to evaluate separately specific modules of a programme, this will be done for the equality modules in 1990. Seminars were held to brief the Inspectorate and a significant part of the Primary Schools Inspectors’ Annual Conference was given to the topic”.

The report at Appendix 4, which was prepared by a Department of Education Inspector and reflects the perceptions of primary school principals. It highlights the problems faced by Inspectors when dealing with this issue at the initial in-service seminars attended by some 3,000 principals in 1984.

The TENET Project is clearly having an impact on policy implementation and on INSET provision. In conjunction with the Department of Education’s TENET Project, two in-service programmes for primary school teachers - each of one weeks duration - have been provided:

(i)35 teachers attended such a course in Donegal Town during the last week of August 1989 (end of Phase 1);

(ii)50 teachers attended a similar course - again in Donegal town - during the first week of July 1990. This marked the end of Phase 2.

Both courses were ‘dedicated’ to gender issues (as indeed were the courses and workshops organised by the other TENET Projects).

As part of the dissemination of TENET, an in-service course for members of the Primary Inspectorate was provided during the third week of July, (1990); this was attended by some 20 Inspectors, most of whom were male.

Arising also out of the Department’s TENET Project an INSET Module (2 hours) on gender was developed for use by all Directors of Department of Education INSET courses. This became available in May 1990 and was used at Summer In-Service courses. An evaluation report is currently being prepared. This module contains appropriate activities and information as well as a set of Guidelines on how to implement gender equity.

The dissemination plans for TENET include proposals for a one day nation-wide INSET programme - dedicated to gender - for Primary teachers.

With regard to Department of Education Seminars and Workshops on the specific theme of gender equality at post primary level, the broad picture which emerges is as follows. The main focus between 1980 and 1984 was on guidance counsellors this was followed by a period of relatively intensive activity during 1984-1985. Two factors help to explain the flurry of activity in the 1984/85 period.

(1)The publication of the E.S.R.I. study: Schooling and Sex Roles: Sex differences in subject provision and student choice in Irish post-primary schools (1983).

(2)The heavy emphasis placed in the 1984-87 Programme for Action in Education on the elimination of sexism.

Six Seminars on Equality in Education were referred to in of the Programme for Action.⁽⁶³⁾ The Minister for Education Mrs. Gemma Hussey T.D. opened the first Seminar in Dublin. In her address she stressed her personal commitment to ’break through and break down any barriers to the full development of girls’ and boys’ potential for self expression, self fulfilment and capability of contributing to society. She outlined the main objective of the seminars as being ’an effort to assist school management and teachers in their efforts to eliminate sex differentiation within their own schools’.

TABLE 18 : Attendance at Department of Education Seminars in 1984 on Equality in Education by Gender of School.

The Chairperson of the Employment Equality Agency addressed each of the six seminars. The main conclusions to be drawn from these seminars were identified by the Department Inspector who organised them as follows:

*There is an urgent need for syllabus review in the practical subjects especially and for a review of the junior cycle core curriculum.

*There is an urgent need for staff development programmes for teachers and principals and for support for guidance counsellors.

“While the attendance at the seminars was low (it was discovered both at the seminars and subsequently that many principals did not circulate the Departments’s circular or inform members of their staff about the seminars), the overall response from the participants was positive. While there was a slight increase in the number of participants from single sex boys’ schools compared to the summer seminars (there were three single sex boys schools represented) the lack of representation from these schools continues to give cause for concern”.

She suggested that in planning future activities in this area the following points should be noted:

*It will be important to reach subject teachers not just through their schools, but through their subject associations.

*It will be necessary to provide support for schools that are initiating change, through the inspectorate and by way of back up support for the school, e.g. help with time-tabling, resource materials and facilities.

A series of one day seminars was organised for primary school principals during November/December 1984 to promote awareness of the need to avoid sexism/sex stereotyping. A major Exhibition on the theme of non-traditional careers for girls, organised by teachers in a number of schools in association with the Department of Education and the R.D.S., was held in the R.D.S. in April 1985. The aims of the Exhibition were:

*To expose girls and their parents to a wide range of possible career options, particularly those careers in the new technologies and those not traditionally considered by girls and to give as much information as possible on these careers.

*To offer support to those girls who wish to pursue a career in a non-traditional field.

A familiarisation course on careers in Science and Technology was held in July 1985. Its aim was to familiarise school principals and guidance counsellors, particularly those engaged in the education of girls, with New Information Technology and with careers in N.I.T. and the Sciences. A total of 23 participants attended (3 principals, 16 Guidance Counsellors, 4 Science teachers).

There appears to have been little INSET activity in relation to gender between 1986-8 The Department of Education invited the Curriculum Development Centres/Units in Dublin, Galway and Shannon to provide INSET in relation to gender equity in VPT programmes late in 1988.

A workshop on ‘Provision for and choices made by Girls in the context of Vocational Preparation and Training’ was held in Galway in November, 1988. Invitations were issued to 37 schools in counties Galway, Mayo and Roscommon to attend and 15 schools were represented. (20 teachers) The Curriculum Unit in Dublin worked with three schools on whole school review with particular emphasis on female choices in VPT programmes. The report⁽⁶⁴⁾ on this research found that

“There seems to be enough congruence between the detailed school descriptions and the results of national surveys to sugggest that the issues identified and the action proposed might form a useful basis for discussion in other schools attempting a similar review”.

The report then goes on to provide a useful list of issues which might be used as a basis for further school review work. It concludes that⁽⁶⁵⁾

“The trends noted by the Department of Education’s survey regarding gender stereotyping in VPT courses were also noted in the schools surveyed … Both the quantity and the quality of designations on offer require extension and improvement”.

As pointed out above, gender equality was an important part of the Transition (from school to adult and working life) Projects and was the subject of related in-service programmes organised by these projects. Gender is a component in the programme for study visits organised with the support of the Education Committee of the E/C.

3.3.2 Statement of the Council and The Ministers for Education, meeting within the Council of the European Community.

Under the Irish Presidency the very significant statement at Appendix 5 was issued on 31 May 1990. This statement stresses the fundamental role that teachers have to play in the achievement of equality of opportunity and it emphasises the importance of pre and inservice training of teachers in this regard. The relevant authorities are called on to

*review current provision at pre and in-service levels and attempt to integrate treatment of gender more fully into existing programmes;

*promote womens’ studies and research on gender issues especially at third level;

*focus the teacher trainers themselves on issues related to equality of educational opportunity.

3.4 IN-SERVICE PROVISION IN GENERAL

It would appear that the Joint Commitee was concerned about In-service provision in general; many of its recommendations have clear implications for In-service. Relevant expenditure at primary and second level for 1984-1988 is presented in Table 19 below.

TABLE 19 : Direct Expenditure on In-Service at Primary and Second Level (1984-89)

1.The cost figures in Table 19 do not include travel and subsistence grants to teachers in Vocational schools. Such grants are paid by the relevant V.E.C.

2.In addition to the figures shown, some 7-8,000 primary teachers attend summer courses organised externally (by Teachers’Centres, Colleges of Education and various local and cultural organisations). They are granted extra personal vacation during the school year in respect of their attendance. In effect therefore, almost half of the primary teaching service attends some form of inservice training each year.

The figures quoted represent the budget for in-service courses organised by the primary inspectorate each year. They exclude the subventions given to Teachers’ Centres and Colleges of Education and the cost of inspectorial staff and the substitution costs for staff released with pay to attend the Diploma Course in Special Education.

During 1989, in addition to the figures given in the Table, 140 teachers attended week-end remedial courses throughout the year and 25 teachers attended the Diploma in Special Education Course.

3.The increased provision at second level for 1985 and following is largely accounted for by an average annual expenditure of £60,000 - £70,000 on V.P.T.

4.The 1989 figures for second level include two days of Junior Certificate In-Service for all teachers of the seven new courses (Attendance 24,000. This means that total attendance at non Junior Cert Courses was 1,640). The total number of courses for 1989 was not available.

5.The above attendance figures should be seen in the context of the latest statistics published (1987-88) where we find that there are 18,329 teachers and 657 non teaching principals in the primary sector and 19,314 teachers (including principals) at second level.

When these figures are considered in the overall context of actual expenditure on primary and second level education the following picture emerges.

TABLE 20 : Direct In-Service Expenditure as a Proportion of Total Expenditure (Programme Estimates)

It is clear from the above information that the general level of in-service provision has not improved since 1984. Special provision is being made in relation to Junior Certificate at present. The T.U.I. Equality Officer observed in relation to second level that ‘the reality is that a teacher can go right through a teaching career without ever attending an In-service course and the same is true of a school principal’. This situation makes the promotion of gender equality - which demands much awareness raising - particularly problematic.

It was announced in the Programme for Economic and Social Progress (69,g) that:

The Department of Education is at present undertaking a study on the future in-service training needs of teachers at primary and post-primary levels. The findings of this study will be available in the first quarter of 1991. It is proposed to allocate an additional £0.5m in 1992 and £1m. in 1993 and subsequent years for in-service needs to include developing teachers’ skills in the areas of pupil assessment, in dealing with disadvantaged pupils and in the area of the organisation and management of schools.

This represents an increase of some 60% for 1992 and of some 150% for 1993 and subsequent years.

In the 1992 Budget the extra provision made available for in-service training was actually £0.265 million. The report referred to in the PESP has not been published. Resources were also allocated in the 1992 Budget to strengthen the network of Teachers’ Centres.

4. GUIDANCE PROVISION

4.1 THE RESPONSE OF THE INSTITUTE OF GUIDANCE COUNSELLORS

The Joint Oireachtas Committee gives the school guidance counsellor a pivotal role in the shaping of school policy on gender equity. In a personal written response to my request for help in the preparation of this report - dated December 1988 - the National Chairperson of the Institute of Guidance Counsellors (I.G.C.) says:

“Since the Joint Committee Report, the I.G.C. has continued its commitment to work for equality of opportunity in education, training and working and social life”.

He goes on to identify some of the developments which relate to the Joint Committee Report and its recommendations:

Professional Role Document

In our Professional Role Document, ‘The Guidance Counselling Service and the role of the Guidance Counsellor in Second Level schools’, adopted by our National Congress in 1985, we reaffirmed our commitment to equality in education: ‘The guidance counsellor is particularly aware of the potential of subject choice for reinforcing sex discrimination against boys and girls and works to minimise such potential by working for equal access to all subjects for all students and by supporting students who opt for non-traditional areas of study’.

School Guidance Committee Report

We were members of the School Guidance Committee, whose first Report, as requested by the Joint Committee (Para. 5.3), has been issued and circulated. On page 3, the Report states: ‘School must help young women and men recognise their potential as equals within the society in which they live. Thus, they must reflect a recognition of the changing roles of women and men based on realisation of equal opportunity. Guidance and counselling services can assist this realisation of equality by striving to help young people to extend their aspirations and by the modification of narrowly defined attitudes. The guidance counsellor needs to examine practical and realistic ways to enhance equality of opportunity for both boys and girls’.

Referral of Young People Under Stress

The School Guidance Report also suggests that the Recommendation No. 3.4 of the Joint Committee Report has not been implemented, when it notes on the question of ‘Professional back-up service’ for young people with psychological problems: ‘An adequately staffed school psychological service is necessary to provide leadership for the guidance and counselling service and to support guidance counsellors. There are 24 psychologists currently employed in the Psychological Service in the Department of Education. This is inadequate’. The Guidance Report also notes: ’Counsellors frequently find it difficult to refer young people who have special needs to therapeutic services. In particular there is a lack of adolescent counselling services throughout the country. Schools in proximity to established clinics or counselling centres have found these a great help. There is of course no school health service available to post primary students at present’.

Professional and In-service Training

Recommendation 3.4 of the J.O.C. Report also refers to ‘Assistance and professional training for teachers to enable them to cope with psychological problems of pupils’. The School Guidance Committee report makes clear that the numbers involved in professional training in guidance and counselling has dropped dramatically since the 1983 cutbacks. The report notes that ‘this would indicate that qualified guidance counsellors may not be available for employment in schools in the future’.

Recognising that teachers without guidance and counselling expertise need training in identifying and working with students with psychological problems, the I.G.C. organises a Counselling Workshop each year, for all involved in schools. The response to last year’s workshop was such that it was impossible to cope with the numbers. This training day is funded completely by participants and by the Institute.

Recognising also that disabling personal stress makes it impossible for many young people to avail of any opportunity in a meaningful way, we continue to provide in-service training for our own members with the aim of extending their repertoire of skills and understandings to improve success rates in counselling interventions. We have paid particular attention to the needs of the sexually abused. Our members have reported a significant increase in the numbers of young people, both boys and girls, but especially girls, who have come to them to disclose abuse. To develop our members’ awareness of the problem, we organised a national seminar on Sexual Abuse in 1986. Constance Nightingale gave a training workshop, and the Rape Crisis Centre gave a workshop at our Annual Congress, and at regional centres around the country. Relevant to the call for a ‘Fully comprehensive sex education programme embracing the whole area of responsible personal relationships’ (Recommendation 5), the report of our own Subcommittee on Sex Education provision is available.

Women in Engineering

The I.G.C. took an active part in the Women in Engineering Year 1986. At our Annual ‘Careers in Industry’ Conference, organised in conjunction with the Confederation of Irish Industry, we had a speaker on ‘Women in Engineering’. We had a workshop on the same theme at our Annual Congress. We distributed the ‘Women in Engineering’ video to our members (sponsored by the E.S.B.) who have used it extensively in guidance classes.

European Action Programme

We are represented on the Department of Education ‘EC Action B 11 Diversification of Opportunities for Women in Education and Training Network’, which has encouraged a number of initiatives in schools, including the N.I.H.E. ‘Introduction to Engineering Week for Women’, the leaflet on subject choice distributed to all schools, and the Engineering Skills Workshop involving a girls secondary school and the local AnCo Training Centre in Limerick.

Careervision Videos

We worked on the Careervision Advisory Committee of the Youth Employment Agency during the planning for and the production and the distribution of the Careervision video ‘Women’s Work’, which looked at non-traditional careers for girls.

Subject Provision

Individual guidance counsellors have sought to influence school management to provide wider choice for girls in subject provision, especially in the sciences and honours mathematics. Although we have not undertaken a formal survey in this area, informal feedback suggests that where such interventions were successful there has been some disappointment in the uptake by girls offered the option of e.g. Physics, despite positive support from the guidance counsellors. Access itself appears not to be enough. Attitude change is more difficult to effect.

Guidance and Counselling into the 1990’s

In our recent national seminar on the above topic, we chose the equality issue as one of the key issues to highlight, with a paper on ’Guidance For Equality’.

To conclude, may we suggest to the Joint Oireachtas Committee that it broaden its focus of attention to include ways and means of encouraging attitude change amongst young males to role equality. In our experience, boys are far behind girls in their appreciation of equality issues. Their attitudes are currently, and will continue to be a serious obstacle to girls who wish to consider non-traditional options. Such options have profound implications for men’s understanding of their own roles in the family, at work, and in society. Such questions must be addressed directly, especially, although not exclusively, in single sex schools, with planned interventions’.

As already outlined at 3.1.2 above the Institute of Guidance Counsellors is participaitng in Phase 2 of the TENET Programme.

4.2. GUIDANCE PROVISION AT SECOND LEVEL

“An increase in the number of guidance counsellors, priority to be given to the areas of greatest need”.

The reality, is that guidance provision in schools has been affected by cut-backs imposed by Government. It is proposed here to chronicle the effects of the various ‘economies’ on the guidance service using four main sources:

(ii)Data collected by the T.U.I. (Death by a Thousand Cuts, 1988, and their more recent study on the effects of the ‘cuts’ in Vocational and Community Schools for the school year 1988-89);

(iii)Material submitted by the National Chairperson of the Institute of Guidance Counsellors in response to a request for help with the preparation of this report.

(iv)The ASTI survey Staffing, Funding and Facilities in Second Level Schools carried out in 1990.

4.2.1. Report of the School Guidance Committee

The most comprehensive survey on guidance counselling was conducted by the School Guidance Committee in 1985. A questionnaire was circulated to 102 post primary schools selected by random sampling. Replies were received from 78 of these schools in time for inclusion in the data processing.

Table 21 gives the distribution of sample schools by school type and size of school.

Slightly under half of the schools in the sample have a student population in the 250-500 range, with the remainder being almost evenly divided between schools of under 250 and over 500 students. Secondary and Comprehensive/Community schools make up the bulk of schools with over 500 pupils.

The main findings of the Committee’s research are reproduced below together with direct quotations from the Report as appropriate.

4.2.1.1 Distribution of Schools with Guidance Counsellors

Tables 22 and 23 show the number of schools with a guidance counsellor on staff and their distribution by type and size of school. The term ’Ex-Quota’ is used to indicate schools that have a post for guidance counselling in addition to the teaching posts granted on the basis of pupil-teacher ratio.

TABLE 22 : Distribution of Schools with Guidance Counsellor by Type of School

78% of the sample schools had a guidance counsellor on staff either on an ex-quota, not ex-quota or shared basis. Two of these schools had employed a guidance counsellor on a part-time basis. Two schools had two guidance counsellors on staff, having one ex-quota post each. Of the secondary schools with guidance and counselling, over half had ex-quota posts compared with one in six vocational schools. Overall, less than half the schools with guidance and counselling had ex-quota posts.

TABLE 23 : Distribution of Schools with Guidance Counsellor by Size of School

35 of the 37 schools in the sample with a student population in the 250-500 range, had a guidance counsellor. Prior to 1983 all of these schools would have been entitled to appoint a guidance counsellor on an ex-quota basis. Only 9 of these schools had posts additional to the quota which were being used as full guidance and counselling posts. The other schools in this category had lost their additional posts since the change in conditions regarding the appointment of guidance counsellors to schools and, under the current regulations, these remaining additional posts will be lost gradually. These nine remaining schools were made up of 7 secondary schools, 1 vocational school and 1 community school.

’It appears that the erosion of the guidance and counselling provision occurred most quickly in the vocational system, as they have lost a higher percentage of ex-quota posts than the other two systems”.’

Only 6 out of the 21 schools in the sample (29%) with a student population of less that 250 had any guidance counselling service.

As would be expected, as a consequence of the 1983 circulars, all 20 schools in the sample with a student population of over 500 had a guidance counsellor on staff. 19 had the services of a full time guidance counsellor on an ex-quota basis. One vocational school, with a population of over 500, had a guidance counsellor on an ex-quota basis, but the services were shared with another smaller school.

4.2.1.2 How Guidance Counsellors’ Time is Allocated

1. Subject Teaching

The manner in which guidance counsellors organise their time depends directly on the amount of time available for guidance and counselling activities, and hence, indirectly, on the amount of formal classroom teaching they are required to undertake. Table 24 presents the average amount of time spent by guidance counsellors in subject teaching.

TABLE 24 : Guidance Counsellors’ Subject Teaching hours by Type of Provision

Guidance counsellors in schools which do not have an ex-quota post are more involved in formal subject teaching than those in schools with an ex-quota post. Approximately half of the minimum number of teaching hours are allocated to non-guidance and counselling activities in schools without an ex-quota post.

2. Guidance and Counselling Work

The results of the questionnaire showed that the average number of hours per week spent by guidance counsellors on guidance and counselling work was 15 hours. This figure includes 5 guidance counsellors with in excess of 22 hours. Others indicated that they also work outside of their time-tabled time. This suggests that guidance counsellors give a considerable amount of their own time to the guidance and counselling service of the school.

Tables 25 and 26 present the average amount of time spent by the guidance counsellor on guidance and counselling work by type of provision and type of school.

The time allocated to guidance and counselling in schools where there is an ex-quota provision exceeds that allocated in schools where the guidance counsellor is not ex-quota.

Schools having a guidance counsellor on a shared basis are worst provided for with an average of 6 hours a week allocated to guidance and counselling. The range for this type of provision was from 2.6 hours to 17.5 hours per week. It appears that some schools in this category have such a limited service that few of the objectives of guidance and counselling could be met.

Comprehensive/Community schools on average allocated most time to guidance and counselling work. It should be noted however that these schools all had a population of over 250 pupils, while there was a higher proportion of small schools in the vocational sector.

This information on guidance provision should be seen in the light of the following anomaly as identified in the report of the Committee.⁽⁶⁷⁾

‘A discrepancy exists between the Secondary, Vocational and Community/ Comprehensive sectors, in relation to the minimum hours specified for guidance and counselling work. In Secondary schools the minimum for schools of under 500 students is 8 hours, for schools with not less than 500 students it is 12 hours. In Vocational, Community and Comprehensive schools the minimum is 8 hours in all Cases.’

A regional survey conducted by members of the Psychological Service in 1984/85 is reported by the School Guidance Committee. The area surveyed contained 316 post primary schools: 88 Vocational schools, 206 Secondary schools and 22 Comprehensive/Community schools/colleges.

The survey findings showed that no guidance and counselling service existed in 31% of these schools and that there had been a significant reduction in provision of guidance and counselling services in the area from the previous year. Over a quarter of the schools surveyed lost an average of over 4 hours per week. The pattern of change differed according to school type.

TABLE 27 : Changes in Guidance and Counselling Services from 1983/84 to 1984/85 (Surveyed by members of the Psychological Services)

“The loss of guidance and counselling time in Vocational schools is the largest average change of any kind identified in the survey. There was considerable variation in the changes from area to area within the region, which shows that the changes are ongoing and illustrates the variable nature of the effects of the change in conditions regarding appointment of guidance counsellors”.⁽⁶⁸⁾

The 1985 M.R.B.I. Survey, ’Attitudes of Young people in Ireland to Education’ contained a section on the attitudes of students to Guidance Counselling. The following findings are quoted in the report of the School Guidance Committee.⁽⁶⁹⁾

“The survey indicated that 71% of current second level students consider that guidance counsellors are helpful and the vast majority of those without access to a guidance counsellor wished it to be otherwise. 13% of students were critical of the guidance and counselling service, with the main reason for this being difficulty in meeting the guidance counsellor and the focus of the guidance and counselling service being directed to those students who are interested in going to third level colleges. There was considerable support for the concept that teachers and guidance counsellors are helpful in assisting students choose subjects”.

4.2.1.3 Conclusions of the Report of the School Guidance Committee

The Report of the School Guidance Committee drew the following conclusions regarding guidance and counselling service in schools:⁽⁷⁰⁾

1.It is clear that guidance and counselling is valued by students and schools. Schools without a guidance counsellor would like to have one The main benefits of the services are seen as vocational, educational and personal guidance and counselling. Its value in the facilitation and development of links with parents and with outside agencies is also recognised. The continuation of guidance and counselling in many schools where ex-quota posts have been withdrawn is an indication of the value placed on the service.

2.A large number of schools do not have a Guidance and Counselling Service. (22% of those surveyed in the nation wide School Guidance Committee survey and 31% of those surveyed in a particular region by the Psychological Service). Schools with a student population of less than 250 students form the bulk of those without a guidance counsellor. However, some schools with a student population in the 250-500 range are now without a practicing guidance counsellor and this number is likely to increase under the current regulations.

3.Special schools are administered by the Special Education Section of the Primary Branch of the Department of Education. Many of these schools have substantial numbers of pupils in the 12-18 years of age bracket. These students do not have access to a school guidance and counselling service.

4.A major factor in the quality of a guidance and counselling service is the time allocated to guidance and counselling. Guidance counsellors who are ex-quota are allocated most time for this activity. Guidance counsellors who are shared between schools are allocated on average, 6 hours per week within a school for guidance and counselling. While the work undertaken during this time is important and valued, an adequate service does not exist within these schools. In large schools, one full-time guidance counsellor cannot cater for the needs of all the students. The time allocated currently to guidance and counselling is inadequate. This needs to be remedied by the allocation of full time posts to schools where no ex-quota post exists and through the allocation of further posts to larger schools.

5.The increase in subject teaching by guidance counsellors and the consequent reduction in hours allocated to guidance and counselling in the 1984/85 school year from the 1983/1984 school year indicate that the guidance and counselling service is being diminished. This has occurred to a greater extent in schools within the Vocational Educational system where posts are allocated to schemes and where more discretion is allowed to the authorities regarding the amount of time to beassigned for guidance and counselling work. The variation between types of school suggests that the conditions attaching to the appointment of guidance counsellors need to be reviewed. The full effects of the change in the regulations regarding appointment of Guidance Counsellors would be clear only after a number of years. However, the trend is a negative one.

6.Schools recognised that more time is needed for individual counselling. This needs to be provided for in practice by educational authorities.

7.Students in Senior cycle or on V.P.T. and Transition type courses received significantly more attention from guidance counsellors than Junior Cycle students. This suggests that the developmental process of guidance is not given adequate consideration. Focussing on students in senor cycle curtails the amount of developmental work which can be done. In order to make provision for all students and to take account of a developmental approach additional time for Junior cycle students is needed.

8.The Department of Education’s syllabus for Vocational Preparation and Training programmes (1984) specifies the involvement of the guidance counsellor. It should be noted that not all schools offering these programmes have a guidance counsellor on staff.

9.Contact with parents and outside agencies is an essential element of a guidance and counselling service. This is undertaken often by guidance counsellors outside of their normal working time, due to pressure of work with students.

10.A guidance and counselling service cannot be operated by one person working in isolation. It is essential that the guidance counsellor, principal and other staff members work as a team in order to develop an effective service and to facilitate organisational arrangements.

’The Service should examine practical and realistic ways to enhance equality of opportunity for both boys and girls’.

4.2.2 T.U.I. Research

The T.U.I has summarised the effects of the ’cuts’ on guidance provision as follows⁽⁷¹⁾

*Only 30% of schools had an ex-quota guidance counsellor in 1986/87 because schools with fewer that 500 students lost their ex-quota counsellor in 1983.

*82% of guidance counsellors are involved in an unacceptable level of formal classroom work.

The most recent research relating to the effects of the 1988 ‘cuts’ was conducted by the T.U.I. in 1988 for the school year 1988-89. 310 questionnaires were sent out to Vocational, Community and Comprehensive schools and the response rate was 38%. The Guidance Counselling service was reported as “having been lost in 27 schools (23%) with 19 of these being small rural schools. This represents 54% of small rural schools losing their guidance counselling service. There was some curtailment of the service in 42% of schools”.⁽⁷²⁾

4.2.3 View of Chairperson of Institute of Guidance Counsellors

In his written response of December 1988 the National Chairperson of the Institute of Guidance Counsellors summed up the situation as follows

“A progressive erosion has taken place in the amount of time allocated to guidance counsellors for their work in the guidance and counselling service and a corresponding increase in the time allotted to them for subject teaching”.

‘The pressure on the guidance counsellors’ hours has increased since 1987, when in schools of fewer that 500 students, the vice principal was also brought in quota, thus, stretching even further the subject-teaching resources of schools and increasing the likelihood that the guidance counsellor will be drawn further away from guidance work into subject teaching. The damage to the guidance and counselling service in schools with fewer than 500 students is clearly seen if the figures for those counsellors who are ex-quota in the bigger schools, are compared to those who are in ex-quota”.

“There is no doubt that students have significantly less access to a guidance service now, compared to even the inadequate provision that existed before 1983. The situation is particularly bad in vocational schools, where the guidance and counselling service has ceased to exist as a reality in most students’ lives”

Before leaving this section of the report it is worth noting that Guidance and Counselling was one of the proposed core areas of experience at junior cycle in the Interim Curriculum and Examinations Board’s document In Our Schools.

4.2.4 A.S.T.I. Research

The A.S.T.I. conducted a survey⁽⁷³⁾ by means of a postal questionnaire issued to 578 schools on 15th May 1990 - the response rate was 63% (362). The survey found that:

‘The responses from 292 (81%) of the schools indicated that they had a qualified guidance/counsellor on the staff but, of those, only 170 (47%) were ex-quota and of those who were ex-quota only 151 (42%) were able to undertake the required number of hours of guidance/counselling’.

4.2.5

In a survey of the period 1984-89⁽⁷⁴⁾ Nolan and Burke found that, in the case of Catholic secondary schools in the Free Education System, there had been an increase of approximately 10% in the teaching hours of Guidance/Counsellors.

4.2.6 Positive Developments in the area of Guidance

1.The introduction of Information Technology has commenced. Software has been developed on a co-operative basis between Guidance Counsellors, private Computer firms and the Department of Education. This material will be up-dated regularly. Training courses on Information Technology are being held on a regional basis and it is hoped to continue with these each year. The introduction of I.T. to Guidance is a major development which has occurred over the past two years.

2.The Minister has announced recently (at the Council Conference of the Institute of Guidance Counsellors in Athlone in March 1990) that she intends to arrange for the preparation of guidelines for post-primary schools on the provision of Guidance of inclusion in the next edition of Rules and Programmes. She intends to re-convene the School Guidance Committee for consultations on the preparation of the guidelines.

3.The Minister wrote to post-primary school authorities on 7 Feburary 1990 to inform them that, arising from demographic decline, where there are teachers over quota, by reference to a 20/1 p.t.r., teachers may be retained to the extent where such retention would be justified by the application of a p.t.r. of 19/1. The Minister’s intention is that the resource being provided by this concession should be used to make available additional remedial/guidance teaching to pupils. She has also sanctioned Guidance posts for certain schools in disadvantaged areas.

4.The present Minister, Mary O’Rourke, T.D., has maintained the overall level of guidance as she found it and did not proceed with the further economies which were intended in early 1987. The further pressure on Guidance time in schools would have resulted from decisions by school managements, probably due to pressure from the overall pupil-teacher ratio

5.The Programme for Economic and Social Progress (69c,e) is providing 60 additional posts in disadvantaged areas and will provide for the recognition, on an ex-quota basis, of 0.5 of a whole-time post for guidance in Secondary and Community/Comprehensive schools in the 350-499 category with similar provision for Vocational schools to be made on a scheme basis. This provision is included in the 1992 Budget, to take effect in the 1992-3 school year.

4.2.7 The Role of School Management

The Department of Education officials with responsibility for Guidance provision drew my attention to the role of school management in the allocation of scarce resources in a written response to the second Draft of this Report.

‘Any deterioration in the actual provision of guidance, while clearly related to the economies introduced in 1983, has taken place as a consequence of decisions made by local managements. In the V.E.C.s in particular these decisions have posed problems for guidance provision. In this regard the discretion of the V.E.C. in relation to the allocation of its teachers has posed problems for the Department also in its efforts to have resources for the disadvantaged located where they ought to be located.

In a market place context, however, the decisions of some managements may be a reflection of the value they place on guidance itself or on the way in which the guidance service has been delivered

Basically any deterioration in the time alllocated to Guidance has resulted from the 1983 decision and from decisions made by local school managements on the allocation of resources within schools’.

4.3 GUIDANCE PROVISION IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS

The Report of the School Guidance Committee⁽⁷⁵⁾ states that ’In the future, it is hoped that guidance and counselling services may develop within primary schools. Such a development is indicated by the developmental nature of guidance and counselling, by the experiences of educational and clinical psychologists serving the needs of younger children and by the value of the guidance and counselling service at post primary level’.

The main recommendation of the recent study of primary school goers entitled ’Cherished Equally ? Educational and Behavioural Adjustment of Children’ prepared at the Social Research Centre, N.I.H.E., Limerick and referred to at 2.4 above was:⁽⁷⁶⁾.

“That a Pilot Child Guidance Service be established, the aim of which is to provide a comprehensive, integrated service for children. Formal structures for co-operation in this area need to be established between the Department of Health on the one hand and the Department of Education on the other hand so that a coherent integrated service may be developed”.

4.4 EUROPEAN STUDY

A study on Educational and Vocational Guidance Services for the 14-25 Age Group within the Member States of the European Community published in 1988, includes a report for the Republic of Ireland.⁽⁷⁷⁾ Having drawn attention to the uneven provision of guidance and counselling service (as already outlined above) in their conclusions they go on to make a number of telling points about our provision. This entire section from the Report is reproduced at Appendix 6.

*All second level schools suffer from a lack of human and financial resources. School leavers in general, and early school leavers in particular, are inhibited in their preparation for life as a result.

*They recommended that some of the ‘very substantial resources allocated to some of the state agencies working with young people’ be re-directed into second-level education.

*Most third level colleges suffer from inadequate resources of staffing and money for guidance purposes.

*There is a lack of co-ordination in guidance provision for those who have left full-time education. ‘The present position constitutes a most confusing situation for young persons entering the labour market’.

*Within some state training agencies those responsible for guidance work lack the necessary training.

*There is a need for improved guidance provision for young people who have left full-time education and for effective linkage between such services and the education-based services.

*The future role of guidance counsellors in both schools and training agencies may be one of co-ordination and support to teachers/placement officers.

*The Community Training and Employment Consortia (COMTECs) could facilitate linkages between guidance providers in education and training.

The re-constitution of all training agencies into one state manpower agency (FÁS) occurred since the publication of this particular study. It should also be noted that the establishment of COMTECs has been discontinued.

4.5 GUIDANCE IN E/C TRANSITION PROJECTS

The improvement of educational and vocational guidance was an important theme of the Transition II (1983-87) projects across the member states of the European Community. Guidance as seen by the pilot projects

“goes far beyond the provision of up-to-date information on careers and jobs or help to find a work experience placement. It involves opportunities for active learning and personal experience, and should help put into focus the personal and social future of the young person, not only his/her future work”.⁽⁷⁸⁾

The report points out that ‘In the Transition Programme, there was a noticeable trend towards giving the guidance process a more central place in the work of the school’. The pilot projects saw guidance:

*As a process requiring the active involvement of other partners and some inter-institutional co-operation.

The two Danish projects were able to develop their strategies for follow-up guidance services for those at risk in the context of a framework of national regulations for follow-up guidance. The key strategy here is not to lose contact at the point of leaving school. Transition Education for the ’90s includes a section on ’Sex Destereotyping and Widening Girls’ Choices’:⁽⁷⁹⁾

‘Challenging traditional thinking among adults about the roles of women, and raising the self awareness and self confidence of girls, were seen by many pilot projects as the essential first steps in this field. Projects therefore concentrated on:

*Actions aimed at teachers, administrators, parents and counsellors. In 1985, an Action Handbook addressed to these target groups was published to follow up the Council Resolution to promote equal opportunities for girls and boys in education, adopted on 3rd June 1985.⁽⁸⁰⁾

*Action aimed at improving the quality of guidance for girls, to encourage them to choose technical subjects, to learn to use a computer, to participate in mixed-group project work, and work experience programmes. (These have been enumerated in the IFAPLAN publication, Equal Opportunities, 1988).

*The development of curriculum materials. The Shannon project (IRL 18) developed a comprehensive teachers’ resource pack, entitled Why not broaden your horizons ? containing a teachers’ handbook, student work-cards and video materials. The pack is addressed to Guidance Counsellors and subject teachers, and includes guidelines for activities, in and out of the school, to cover about ten 40 minute periods. It is mainly designed for use with girls aged 11-16 but has also proved effective with mixed groups.

The experience of the projects confirms the value of such curricular initiatives. But many projects also stressed the need not just for a specific course, but for continuous action pervading all curriculum and guidance activities in school”.

The Action Handbook referred to above has been circulated to all schools by the Department of Education as part of an Equality pack in April 1990: prior to that it had been sent to post-primary schools only.

5 SOME SCHOOL ORGANISATIONAL ISSUES

Two related issues arise out of the 1984 J.O.C. Report: amalgamation of schools and interchange of students and teachers.

5.1. AMALGAMATION

The Department of Education’s commitment to co-educational schooling has been dealt with in Section 1 of this report. In her Budget Speech on 4th February, 1988 the Minister for Education also stated:

“It is my intention to ensure that my Department will place greater emphasis in future on the need to achieve greater co-operation between schools in a particular community. With a view to rationalising educational provision at second level priority will be given to projects in areas where there is evidence of local initiatives representative of all educational interests relating to amalgamation or the shared use of resources”.

The Green paper ’Partners in Education’ contained proposals which would have provided a framework for the rationalisation of post-primary facilities thus expediting the processes of amalgamation and inter-institutional co-operation.

*16 amalgamations have taken place since 1984 resulting in 8 Community Schools, 5 Secondary Schools and 3 Community Colleges;

*decisions have been taken but not yet implemented in relation to 21 further amalgamations which will result in 11 Community Schools, 6 Secondary Schools and 4 Community Colleges.

There is clearly a commitment to rationalisation but there are a number of factors which make the implementation of amalgamation difficult:

(i)The lack of will at local level to amalgamate unless new buildings are needed

(iii)The difficulty of getting agreement from all parties in a situation where e.g. two of the existing primary and/or second level schools in a particular town have perfectly good accomodation while the third school needs a new building.

So while there is no difficulty about providing new co-educational schools in the green fields situation as long as the money is available there are difficulties to be overcome in relation to areas where a number of schools already exist. The recent moves towards urban renewal in Dublin have arrested the development of green fields areas. This trend allied to recent demographic factors means that the demand for new schools has dropped considerably. Of course the declining numbers of young people mean that amalgamations will have to occur. Part of the agreement that has been reached between the I.N.T.O. and the Department of Education on class size is that amalgamation of schools will be accelerated in urban areas. (There is very little further scope for the amalgamation of primary schools in rural areas). This will mean that the numbers attending co-educational schools will increase:

5.2. INTERCHANGE OF STUDENTS

The practice of student interchange is encouraged by the Department; it tends to happen on a quid pro quo basis. On the basis of available Department of Education data for 1986/87 the following picture of inter-institutional arrangements emerges.

5.2.1 Junior Cycle

The relevant Department of Education form⁽⁸¹⁾ was returned by twenty four schools. On the basis of these returns it is possible to identify nine pairs of schools that were involved in inter-institutional arrangements. Five of these arrangements involved reciprocity (students going both ways) while in the case of four the movement was one way. It would appear that the matching schools have not returned their forms in the case of the other schools. The movement appears to be in one direction only in the case of all six.

TABLE 28 : Schools involved in Inter-Institutional Arrangements at Junior Cycle by Type (1986/87).

Of the known reciprocal arrangements (N = 5) three involved a secondary school co-operating with another secondary school and in two cases the co-operation was between a secondary and a vocational school. The subjects being taken by those students who were involved in inter-institutional arrangements at Junior Cycle are set out below.

The two subjects in relation to which inter-institutional arrangements are most in evidence are French (where twice as many girls as boys benefit) and Home Economics (where twice as many boys benefit). The almost total absence of such interchange for the practical subjects (Woodwork, Metalwork) is noteworthy.

TABLE 29 : Subjects (Junior Cycle) being taken by students involved in inter-institutional arrangements (1986/87).

5.2.2 Senior Cycle

The relevant Department of Education form⁽⁸²⁾ was returned by 91 schools. On the basis of these returns it is possible to identify:

*44 of the above schools were involved in reciprocal arrangements (i.e. 22 pairs)

*The matching school has not returned its form in the case of the remaining 33 schools of whom 7 would appear to be involved in reciprocal exchange arrangements.

This suggests that some 58 schools are involved in reciprocal arrangements at senior cycle (complete data is available for 44 of these schools) and that 40 other schools are involved in one way exchanges making for a total of 98 schools in all (data is available for 91). The total number of second level schools in the country in 1987-88 was 816. This means that, according to available information, approx. 12% of all schools were involved in inter-institutional arrangements at senior cycle.

TABLE 30 : Schools involved in inter institutional arrangements at Senior Cyc by School Type (1986/87).

TABLE 31 : Schools involved in KNOWN RECIPROCAL inter institutional arrangements at Senior Cycle (N = 44)

Table 32 : Subjects being taken by students involved in inter institutional arrangements at Senior Cycle (1986/87).

While overall rates of participation in inter-institutional arrangements were miniscule, it is noteworthy that the greatest numbers of students are engaging in inter-institutional exchanges in the Science subjects and Mathematics at Leaving Certificate. While 165 males are involved in interchange in order to study Home Economics, the number of females so involved for Building and Engineering is zero while it is 8 for Technical Drawing.

5.3 INTERCHANGE OF TEACHERS: PILOT INTERVENTION PROJECT IN PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.

This Project, which is directed by a Senior Inspector in the Department of Education, has been in operation since the school year 1985-86. The scheme works as follows:⁽⁸³⁾

“An experienced teacher is selected by the Department and appointed to introduce Physics or Chemistry to a girls school in a selected region. The brief of this teacher, termed a Visiting Teacher (V.T.), is not only to introduce Physics or Chemistry as a subject in the Project School but also to establish a tradition of the subject within the school and to foster an appreciation of the subject as an integral part of a modern curriculum. The Visiting Teacher travels to the Project School, in most cases twice weekly, being replaced in his own (sic) school by a part time substitute-teacher. A teacher in the project school attends the classes given by the Visiting Teacher, assisting him (sic) where appropriate. At the termination of the project, it is envisaged that this Assisting Teacher will be in a position to take over the teaching of the subject in the Project School.

In addition to expanding the curriculum of the project schools the Visiting Teachers provide a very useful service to other girls’ schools in the region. In some cases teachers from these schools, known as Associated Schools, come to the Project School and attend the Visiting Teacher’s classes. In other instances the Visiting Teacher travels to the Associated Schools so that teachers are able to discuss their problems in relation to techniques in experimental work and new developments in their subject. This is a form of in-service training which the teachers involved are finding invaluable. The Visiting Teachers are also actively involved in the promotion of their subject among Junior Cycle students in the Associated Schools as well as in the Project Schools. Experience to date would strongly indicate the Associated Schools concept to be a most effective means of promoting Equality of Opportunity for Girls in Education in the field of the Physical Science. The development of the Associated Schools within the scheme has already proved to be a most beneficial and cost-effective means of achieving our objective of increasing the awareness of, and participation in, the Physical Sciences among the girls in these schools. Moreover, the development is making a major contribution to improving the teaching of the Physical Sciences in the Associated Schools and so raising the quality of the education available to girls in these schools. Consequently, we now propose to develop the scheme further along these lines, for instance, regions consisting solely of associated-type schools might be established where the creation of a Project School may not be necessary”.

A procedure has now been established for initiating this intervention. This procedure may be summarised as follows:

1.A school in need is identified. In selecting schools the importance of having a representative sample is recognised. Factors which must be borne in mind in this regard are the geographic location of the school, the social background of the pupils and the-type of school.

2.A suitable Visiting Teacher is selected. This teacher must be experienced and capable of motivating and enthusing pupils.

3.Agreement must be reached with the management of the Visiting Teacher’s own school - this school is known as a Base School - to release the Visiting Teacher for a period each week. It is recognised that this imposes restrictions on time-tabling in the Base School and requires considerable co-operation from the management of the school.

4.Suitable substitute teachers must be found to take the place of the Visiting Teacher while he/she is in the Project School. This may not always be a simple matter, especially in rural areas.

5.Suitable arrangements must be made for the provision of an Assisting Teacher in the Project School. This must be done in consultation with the management and staff of the school. (The Assisting Teacher is also known as a take-over teacher since he/she will continue the teaching of the subject at the end of the project).

TABLE 33 : Number of Regions Participating in Pilot Intervention Project in Physics and Chemistry by Year.

Three reasons were given for the proposal to expand the scheme to include four further regions during 1988-89 i.e. Phase II.

“Firstly, it is vital that the scheme should embrace pupils from all social backgrounds. Secondly, it has not, to date, been found possible to extend the benefits of the scheme to the western half of the country. It is a matter of some urgency that this situation be remedied in the coming year. Finally, all of the project schools to date have been single-sex schools. Since the numbers of girls being educated in co-educational schools may be expected to increase in coming years and since it is known that the difficulties experienced by girls in this type of school differ from those experienced in single-sex schools it is considered important to extend the scheme to this type of school. While one dimension of the scheme, viz, class teaching in the project school, will be terminating in three regions at the end of the current school year it will be essential to maintain a support service in these regions in order to ensure that the progress made will be sustained and further improved upon”.⁽⁸⁴⁾

The main finding of the External Evaluation Report on this Project were as follows:

1.‘The Projects have been very successful in promoting Physics and Chemistry in girls’ schools which have not previously included these subjects on the curriculum. Significant numbers of pupils have elected to study Physics and Chemistry and the projects have established a firm basis for the future development of the subjects within the Project Schools.

2.The mechanism created for the projects.… is a most effective and cost effective form of inservice teacher education which could be adopted for the promotion of other subjects also.

3.Participating pupils and teachers are very positive about the initiative and teachers are most anxious to participate in future developments.

4.Participating students had far more positive view of the nature of Physics and Chemistry in a number of ways’.

1.‘That the mechanism designed for the projects be retained, developed and extended to a further selection of regions and that provision be made for a continued service to Associated Schools. (Some specific recommendations for future developments are also suggested)

2.That a ‘whole-school’ approach, extending also to parents, be adopted in the Project Schools. Such an approach is necessitated by the findings on the attitudes of non-participants and should ensure the long term future of the subjects and a further increase in participation rates to approach parity with the participation rates of boys’.

All six participating schools during 1987-88 were girls’ secondary schools. The following table gives information regarding numbers of participants and participation rates.

TABLE 34 : Participation in Pilot Intervention Project in Physics and Chemistry

The numbers of girls studying the relevant subject in Project Schools in each year since the inception of the scheme are shown in Table 34. The annual increase in these numbers reflects not only the increase in the number of Project Schools but the on-going activity in these schools.

TABLE 35: No. of Girls studying relevant subject in Project Schools in each year of the scheme. ^* = Estimated

As may be seen from Table 35 it is estimated that approximately 550 girls have been studying either Physics or Chemistry in Project Schools from September of 1990. In addition to those girls currently studying in Project Schools 330 girls from these schools have already sat the Leaving Certificate in either Physics or Chemistry

6. PUPIL/TEACHER RATIO

In its 1984 Report on Education the Joint Oireachtas Committee on Women’s Rights stated that:

“The Joint Committee would regard the lowering of the pupil/teacher ratio as an indispensible part of any proposals to equalise subject choice between boys and girls and it calls on the government to give the matter the immediate and corrective measures that it deserves”.

6.1 Changes over the period 1980-90

The changes that have taken place in the pupil/teacher ratio (P.T.R.) since 1980 are set out in Table 36 below.

The above information was supplied by the Department of Education. It would appear that the actual P.T.R. at present is: Secondary 19:1, Vocational 18:1 (some 400 concessionary posts were allowed). A number of concessionary posts were also allowed to Community/Comprehensive schools.

The present Government had given a commitment to a review of the P.T.R. in schools. In a letter to schools dated February 1990 the Minister for Education said:

“In accordance with the Programme for Government and the current programme for National Recovery consideration has been given to improvements in the pupil/teacher ratio at post-primary level in the context of demographic decline.

I am pleased to inform you that arising from such decline the Government have decided that in schools/VEC Committees where there are teachers over quota by reference to a 20 : 1 P.T.R., teachers may be retained to the extent that such retention would be justified by the application of a pupil/teacher ratio of 19 : 1. This arrangement will not apply to fee-paying post-primary schools.

The Government’s intention is that the resource being provided by this concession should be used to make available additional remedial/guidance teaching to the pupils.

Extra resources will be made available to provide additional teachers in specific disadvantaged areas. My Department will be in touch with you shortly regarding specific criteria to be applied in determining disadvantaged areas.

The Government will continue to keep the Pupil/Teacher Ratio at post-primary level under review. It is understood that the Irish Congress of Trade Unions will in the context of any further programme for National Recovery be seeking a 19 : 1 ratio. The Government will consider this in the context of any negotiations on a further programme for National Recovery”.

The following improvements in p.t.r. are proposed in the Programme for Economic and Social Progress published in December 1990 (69a, b, c, d, e).

*At primary level, the overall pupil/teacher ratio will be reduced to 25 : 1 by September 1992. This will be achieved by retaining all existing posts in 1991 and 1992 and by creating 250 new posts in September 1991, and the balance required to achieve the 25 : 1 ratio in September 1992; this process will aim at reducing overly large classes and meeting the needs of the disadvantaged. The position will be reviewed at end 1993.

*A pupil/teacher ratio of 19 : 1 for recruitment purposes at second-level will be phased in over 1991 and 1992 - half of the additional 500 posts to be provided in 1991 and the balance in 1992.

*A further 60 posts will be allocated to post-primary schools in disadvantaged areas for the 1991/1992 school year. The allocation of these posts will be on the basis of criteria already agreed, subject to their being re-examined to ensure that bigger schools with significant numbers of disadvantaged pupils will benefit. The situation will be reviewed in 1993.

*A phased programme, starting in 1992/93 and for completion in 1994/95, will be introduced to provide for the recognition on an ex-quota basis of vice-principal teachers in post-primary schools of 500 pupils and over.

*A phased programme, starting in 1992/93 and for completion in 1994/95 will be introduced to provide for the recognition on an ex-quota basis of 0.5 of a wholetime post for guidance in secondary and community/comprehensive schools in the 350-499 enrolment category, with a similar provision for vocational schools to be made on a VEC Scheme basis in consultation with management and teacher representatives.

The Minister for Education announced that the 1992 Budget provides an additional £2.735 million for improvements in the pupil/teacher ratio at primary and post-primary levels. By retaining the 300 teaching posts which would have been lost at primary level due to falling rolls the p.t.r. improves from 26.6 : 1 to 25.2 : 1. There will be an increase of 143 in the number of existing posts at post-primary level leading to an improved ratio of 19.25 : 1 for appointment purposes in the school year 1992-3. A phased programme will be introduced (starting in 1992/3) to provide for the recognition of vice-principals and guidance counsellors on an ex-quota basis as outlined in the PESP. This will mean that from September next 87 vice-principals will be recognised as ex-quota thereby giving rise to a similar number of new teaching posts and 62 schools will benefit from the services of 0.5 wholetime guidance counsellor.

6.2 THE EFFECTS OF THE CUTS AT SECOND LEVEL

The representatives of the Joint Managerial Body (J.M.B) and of the Association of Secondary Teachers (ASTI) whom I met stressed the curricular implications of the cut backs. According to the JMB representative whom I interviewed

“Since most of the teachers in the schools were appointed when there was demand for certain subjects it is not possible now to provide new subjects although they are badly needed if young women are to be in a position to compete with their male counterparts”.

“This may mean that schools will have to shed subjects and since it operates on a ’last in/first out’ basis, the chances are that subjects recently taken up will be more likely to be lost. No account is taken of the subjects being lost from a gender equality point of view in the working of this scheme”.

He feels that teachers of Wood and Building, Metal and Engineering, Physical Education and Catechetics are most likely to be redeployed within the secondary sector for the reasons given above.

6.2.1 T.U.I. Research

The Teachers’ Union of Ireland (T.U.I.) has carried out research on an on-going basis into the effects of the cut backs. They published Death By a Thousand Cuts in 1988 and subsequently conducted a survey into the effect of the 1988 education cuts on schools.

“The first cuts were implemented in the school year 1983/84. Since then, there has been a consistent erosion of services offered to the community by public sector education”.

This conclusion is based on the following findings as outlined in Death by a Thousand Cuts⁽⁸⁵⁾

Survey 1

The first survey was carried out in order to ascertain the general effects of the 1983/84 measures. It was found that subject options have been lost, replacement teachers refused to schools, and that ex quota posts have been eliminated.

*No schools have an ex quota vice principal (all surveyed schools had an ex quota vice principal in 1982)

*Only 30% of schools have an ex quota guidance counsellor (50% of the schools had an ex quota guidance counsellor of 1982).

*82% of guidance counsellors are involved in an unacceptable level of formal classroom work.

It was calculated that if the cuts had not been implemented, the sector would have had an additional 1,000 teachers. While the removal of ex quota status from vice principals and guidance counsellors has had pervasive negative effects on both junior and senior cycle, the cycle most damaged by the cuts, relative to subject provision, has been senior cycle. This is the cycle where student participation is increasing most rapidly.

Survey II

This survey was conducted in conjunction with the Education Research Centre, Drumcondra on remedial provision in public sector post primary schools. It is of great importance to reiterate the fact that almost a third of students entering vocational schools are in need of remedial assistance. Of equal importance is the fact that the survey showed that remedial teachers are not enabled to undertake remedial work in terms of time stipulated by the Department of Education. The Department stipulates that at least 12 hours per week should be spent by ex quota remedial teachers on recognised remedial work with students and approximately 3 hours per week on testing and contact with parents and staff. However, the following situation emerged from the survey data:

In a follow up survey, in the beginning of the current school year 1987-88 it was found that:

*23% of surveyed remedial teachers had experienced a decrease in time available for general remedial work.

*40% had experienced a decrease in time for testing and contact with parents and staff.

Survey III

This survey was conducted by the Union in the first term of the school year 1987/88. The aim was to ascertain whether provision had been affected in public sector schools in the current year. The results are as follows:

For the most recent T.U.I. research into the effects of the 1988-89 cut backs in schools 310 questionnaires were sent to Vocational, Community and Comprehensive schools. 119 were returned representing a rather low response rate of 38%. The breakdown of schools responding is as follows:

*29.4% of schools reported that some or all of their classes had been reduced in length. The average length of reduction was 4.1 minutes - a 10% cut in class contact time.

*39% of schools reported a decrease in the length of the school week. The average reduction was 92.8 minutes. This loss is on top of previous losses as reported in Death by a Thousand Cuts.

*From the 119 schools in the survey 128 cases of subjects being lost to the school were reported. This represents an average of 1.1 subjects being lost per school. Medium sized schools were most seriously affected losing 1.28 subjects per school. The subjects lost were as follows:

*77 cases of lost options (for certain students) were reported from the 119 schools. This represents 0.65 per school. Large schools were most affected losing 0.92 options per school. Options lost were as follows:

*102 curtailments of subject options (.94 per school) were reported from the 119 schools. This includes loss of separate pass/honours classes or the amalgamation of 2 year groups for a subject etc. Small schools were worst affected having curtailments at the rate of 1.37 per school. Subjects curtailed were as follows:

*34% of schools reported a reduction in the secretarial or administration provision for the school.

*The number of students participating in V.P.T.1 programmes decreased by 14% and the decrease was much greater in the case of small rural schools (47.3%) The draft T.U.I. report concludes on this issue that: ’The drop in V.P.T.1 student numbers is alarming and must be due at least in part, to the withdrawal of the £300 training allowance. The drastic fall in small rural schools may be due to the inability of these schools to offer V.P.T. courses. V.P.T. 1 course have been targeted at the disadvantaged and this shows the effect of this cut as being on the disadvantaged.’(This issue will be considered further at 7.5 below).

The refusal to sanction the replacement of lost teachers was reported for the following subjects:

*Remedial teaching was lost to 23% of schools with 55% reporting some curtailment of service. This should be seen in the context of the following information presented in the ’Report on Remedial Education’ published by T.U.I. in 1987.

It can be seen that one third of a first year student intake to Vocational schools is diagnosed as being two or more years below their chronological reading age. The comparative intake for secondary schools is, according to the T.U.I. Report, onethirteenth.

“It can be seen clearly that it is essential that adequate numbers of ex quota remedial teachers are available to public sector schools, and further that these teachers are enabled to undertake remedial work in terms of the time stipulated by the Department of Education”.⁽⁸⁶⁾

“On average every school has lost at least one subject. This is one of the most serious effects of the cuts particularly when the subjects being lost are essential subjects and central to the traditional vocational school curriculum. The loss of subjects to the school and the loss of subject options to the students both have the effect of denying students access to the subject and the loss of career opportunities”.

6.2.2 A.S.T.I. Research

In its 1990 survey of levels of staffing, funding and other facilities in second level schools the A.S.T.I. found that the situation regarding class size was as follows.⁽⁸⁷⁾

’Department of Education guidelines provide that there should be 30 pupils in a class for general subjects and 24 in a practical class in a second-level school. School stewards were asked to indicate whether there were classes in general subjects with more than 30 pupils in their schools. 208 (58%) or almost two/thirds indicated that there were such classes in their schools. The Stewards were also asked to indicate whether there were classes in practical subjects with more than 24 pupils in their schools and 202 (56%), or almost two/thirds indicated that there were such classes in their schools’.

’186 (51%) of the schools from which responses were received indicated that there was a qualified remedial teacher on the staff. However, in only 85 (23%) of the schools was the teacher ex-quota and, of those teachers who were ex-quota only 69 (19%) were in a position to undertake the required number of hours of remedial work…

Respondents were asked to indicate which subjects their schools had dropped from the school curriculum since 1982. 192 schools (53%) indicated that they had dropped subjects. 80 schools (22%) had dropped Latin, Greek or Classical Studies. 45 schools (12%) had dropped a Modern Language.

40 schools (11%) had dropped a Science subject. 12 schools (3%) had dropped History or Geography. 45 schools (12%) had dropped a Business subject.

Schools were also asked to indicate what additional subjects they would provide if they had the necessary staffing. Respondents indicated that their schools wished to add a total of 640 subjects to their prospectuses. 145 schools indicated that they would wish to add a modern European language subject to their curriculum, 50 indicated that they wish to add a Science subject, 181 indicated that they would wish to add Technology or a technological subject, 45 wished to add Music and Musicianship, 44 indicated that they wished to provide Guidance/Counselling and 30 wished to add Art to the range of subjects provided in their schools.

In 1989 the ASTI conducted a survey on the provision of remedial education in second-level schools. The survey concluded:

’In general, students who need remedial help obtain it for a very limited amount of time and only in a very limited area of the curriculum’.

The survey found, inter alia, that a higher ratio of girls’ than boys’ or co-ed secondary schools made provision for remedial education.

The study found that of 220 respondent schools, 116 (over 52%) made no provision for remedial education and that 84% of these schools perceived a need for such a programme but did not have a suitably qualified teacher available.

It also found that 17 of the schools which made no provision for remedial education had a trained remedial teacher on the staff who was fully timetabled for non-remedial duties while 18 schools which made no provision for remedial education had discontinued a needed remedial programme when the teachers involved were assigned to other duties. As the report itself puts it

’These findings raise questions about the priority given to remedial education in times of cutback when there are competing demands on teacher time. Do those who are already educationally disadvantaged suffer further disadvantage when resources are restricted ?’

6.2.3 Research commissioned by the Council of Managers of Catholic Secondary Schools

The survey conducted by Nolan and Burke (1990) examines and analyses the changing patterns in the financing of Catholic Secondary Schools in the free education scheme over the five year period 1984 to 1989. Such secondary schools constitute 58% of all second-level schools, cater for 63% of all second-level pupils and prepare 7 out of every 10 students for the Leaving Certificate.

A total of 185 schools (43%) returned completed questionnaires. The authors found that

’while the sample of 185 schools is not random, the proportion of schools from each size category closely matches the national distribution. The strength of the sample is further enhanced through confirmation of many of its critical findings by the outcomes of analyses of the audited accounts of 160 secondary schools in Part Two of the report’.

*The survey indicates that the proportion of ordinary classes exceeding 30 students has increased, on average, by 18% over the five-year period examined.

*The increase in the size of practical classes, in those schools which have such classes, has averaged 10%. Practical classes with more than 24 students have increased, on average, by more than 34%, while the numbers of Home Economics and Building Construction classes exceeding the 20 student mark have increased by an average of 27.5% and 47.5%, respectively.

*The survey also indicates that there has been an increase of about 22%, on average, in the number of classes where students following Pass and Honours courses are taught together.

*There has also been an increase in the incidence of subjects being taught by teachers who are not qualified in those particular subjects.

*The teaching hours of Vice-Principals have increased by about 3.5% over the five-year period, while in the case of Guidance Teachers the increase has been approximately 10%.

*While the average number of ex-quota teachers paid by the Department has decreased by 8%, and now averages 1.3 per school, the number of part-time teachers employed out of school funds has increased by 13%, and now averages 2.4 teachers per school.

*Fourteen percent (14%) of students in the schools surveyed are accommodated in prefabricated classrooms.

*Thirty six (i.e. 19.5%) of the schools surveyed reported that they had discontinued one or more subjects at Intermediate Certificate level due to financial cutbacks. The main casualties were as follows (number of schools where subject was lost in brackets): Music (10); Latin (7); Spanish (5); Commerce (5); Art (4); German (4); Mechanical Drawing (2). The total number of pupils affected was 9,830 approx.

*Forty eight (i.e. 26%) of the schools surveyed reported that they had discontinued one or more subjects at Leaving Certificate Level due to the financial cutbacks. The subjects discontinued and the number of schools involved are as follows: Music (7); Physics (6); Latin (5); Spanish (5); German (4); Art (4); History (4); Business Organisation (4); Economics (4); Chemistry (4); Applied Maths (3); Physical Education (3); Technical Drawing (2); Geography (2); Computer Studies (2); Italian (1); Biology (1); Honours Maths (1); Engineering (1); Agricultural Science (1). The total number of students affected is estimated at 8,465 which is approximately 7.5% of all senior cycle students in 1988/89.

*One hundred and twenty-four (i.e. 67%) of the schools surveyed listed one or more Leaving Certificate subjects which they could not offer unless the schools themselves paid for additional teaching hours. The most commonly mentioned subjects and the percentage of schools involved in each case are given below: Art (25%); German (23%); Music (13%); Physics (10%); Home Economics (8%); Technical Drawing (8%); Chemistry (7%); Business Organisation (6.5%); Biology (6%); Building Construction (6%); Applied Maths (4%); Computer Studies (4%).

*School principals were asked to identify those aspects of school provision which would have to be withdrawn if income from sources other than the Department of Education were to cease. The main areas which principals saw as being affected by such a move were as follows: Science and Technology/Computing (39%); Practical subjects (39%); Extra curricular activities (39%); Maintenance/cleaning/caretaking/security (31%); Modern Languages and/or other subject options (30%); Part-time teachers (25%); Secretarial services (20%).

6.3 PROVISION OF SPECIALIST TEACHERS IN POST-PRIMARY SCHOOLS

The above analysis (and that in Section 4) should be considered in the context of information supplied by the Department of Education in April 1990 regarding provision of specialist teachers in post-primary schools as set out in Table 39 below.

TABLE 39 : Numbers of Remedial/Resource/Guidance Teachers in Post-Primary Schools (April 1990)

Some 650 Post-primary teachers have participated in Departmental courses in remedial education.

The T.U.I. research refers to a somewhat earlier period; concessions have been made subsequently which have somewhat softened the effects of the cut-backs.

6.4 PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN DISADVANTAGED AREAS

“Any such improvements in the pupil/teacher ratio should be operated in a flexible manner and directed to the areas of greatest need”.

The Programme for National Recovery (1987) recognised the need to cater for the disadvantaged:⁽⁸⁹⁾

“The Government recognise the importance of the educational system in the promotion of equity in society and will ensure, in implementing whatever adjustments are necessary in that sector because of financial considerations, that the burden of adjustment does not fall on the disadvantaged.

There is a range of measures in place to assist disadvantaged groups. There is also considerable Exchequer support for travellers and the mentally and physically handicapped. Special attention will be given to identifying those with special needs and to provide measures designed to help these groups achieve their full potential.

The Government will continue to encourage and foster the participation of the disadvantaged at all levels of education. A particular area of focus will be to encourage more second-level pupils to complete the senior cycle. It is considered that this will be a key factor in encouraging more working class children to advance to third-level education”.

Special provision has been made for primary schools in disadvantaged areas in two ways:

1.Some 100 additional (ex quota) teacher posts were created for primary schools in disadvantaged areas in 1986. A further 95 posts of this nature were created in each of the two school years 1988-89 and 1989-90. Speaking on the Budget Estimates in Dáil Eireann on December 1st, 1989 the Minister for Education added:

“There are currently 850 posts of remedial teachers in national schools and I have recently decided to create an additional 30. This measure, together with the reduction in the pupil-teacher ratio with effect from next September, will enable school managers and principals to improve the organisation of remedial measures. Guidelines have been issued and there have been in-service courses. Recently we launched a video on new and developing methods in remedial education”.

2.A sum of £500,000 has been allowed each year since 1987 (including 1990) for primary schools catering for disadvantaged students. In fact monies have been allowed for this purpose each year since 1984; the total amount awarded as special aid to date (including 1990) is £3.25 million. Up to the end of 1989 48,000 children in 170 primary schools benefitted.

During the first year of participation a school in this category benefits as follows:

*An additional £10 per head capitation grant is paid to be used for the purchase of books, materials and equipment.

*An additional £5 per head capitation grant for the promotion of home/school/community/liaison initiatives.

*A sum of some £60,000 has been spent on inservice provision for schools designated as disadvantaged.

During the second year of involvement participating schools get a reduced grant (approx. 50% or less).

New schools are being invited into this scheme each year but the intention is to limit the involvement to those schools attended by the 10% of young people who are most disadvantaged. Given the reduced numbers attending primary schools, this does not Preclude the involvement of additional schools. It would appear that the allocation for books, materials and equipment is proving very beneficial but that the promotion of home/school/community liaison is proving problematic.

It is also worth noting that, in the study Cherished Equally, Educational and Behavioural Adjustment of Children, referred to previously, Urban II schools (those participating in the then new Department of Education Disadvantaged Schools Scheme) had:⁽⁹⁰⁾

*6% of pupils who may be categorised as intellectually impaired: a rate which is three times higher than that recorded among the other areas studied.

*42% of younger pupils who are very poor readers compared to an overall rate for the age-group as a whole of 17%.

*18% of older pupils who are very poor readers as compared to 3% for the age group as a whole.

*47% of pupils who display reading backwardness of at least 18 months compared to an overall rate of 20% and severe reading backwardness in 16% of pupils compared to a rate of 5% for the study group as a whole.

*Over a quarter of children in the Urban II area are suffering disturbance compared to the overall ratio of 11% for the study group as a whole.

“The fact that a disproportionate number of problems are concentrated in the Urban II schools suggests that this area should receive particular attention. Indeed these Urban II schools are already designated by the Department of Education as being in an educationally disadvantaged area and as such they have been allocated additional staffing and resources in accordance with the Department’s policy on schools in these areas. However, while there are some services presently available, these would seem inadequate to deal with the overall size of the problem. The one problem which is being catered for is that of the intellectually impaired pupil. The present situation then is that there are many children attending primary schools who are experiencing difficulties of psychological adjustment, of intellectual functioning and difficulties in reading but for whom little help is currently available”.

6.5 GENERAL INFORMATION REGARDING PROVISION FOR THE DISADVANTAGED

The 1984 Report of the Joint Oireachtas Committee on Women’s Rights suggests that

“Any such improvements in the pupil/teacher ratio should be operated in a flexible manner and directed to the areas of greatest need”.

In view of the Committee’s concern with the disadvantaged a list of strategies which have been developed by the Department of Education to help the disadvantaged is provided below.

*Youth Encounter Projects. Four such Projects exist at present. The purpose of the Y.E.P. scheme is to provide an intervention in the local community to cater for children who are at risk.

*ESF funding at third level: over 90% of the 23,000 students in RTCs and Colleges of Technology have their fees paid and receive maintenance grants which are not means tested.

*Free books scheme. During 1989 140,000 pupils at primary level received a total of £980,000 in such aid while 120,000 second level students received £1.9m. Each figure represents an increase of approximately 20% over 1988. In her Budget Estimates Speech the Minister announced a further increase of 24% for 1990. She also announced in late 1989 the granting of an additional £1.096m which will allow for the replenishment of school library books.

*Special Youth and Sport funds aimed at disadvantaged/at risk. A series of projects to help young people from disadvantaged backgrounds was initiated in 1988 at a cost of £4m (National Lottery Funding). Categories of project funded cover areas such as Substance Abuse, Young Travellers, Homelessness. Sport projects which benefitted are categorised as Special Project allocations (V.E.C.s), Sailing Courses (V.E.C.s), National Governing Bodies of Sport, Cospoir Scheme (V.E.C.s). This includes the support of Outdoor Education Centres.

The 1990 Programme for Economic and Social Progress contains a clear commitments to tackling disadvantage. In relation to education it states (69, i) that:

‘An allocation of £1m. in 1991, £2m. in 1992 and £3m. in 1993 additional to current provision will be provided to assist in various areas of disadvantage at all levels of the education system. Specific areas for attention in this context would, subject to priorities, be the development of home/school links, the enhancement of the Free Books Scheme, literacy programmes, initiatives for the improvement of retention rates in the education system and for the improvement of access to third-level education for those from disadvantaged areas’.

The programme⁽⁹²⁾ also contains plans for an innovative integrated community-based response to long-term unemployment in accordance with the 1990 E.C. Resolution and the NESC ‘Strategy for the Nineties’. The role of education in this development includes the following initiatives:

The 1992 Budget allocated an extra £0.25m rather than the £1m suggested in the PESP. The Minister in his speech re-affirmed his own commitment and that of his Department to ’addressing social equity issues relating to education’ and said ’Those funds are additional to those being provided in other ways including the £1.5m ongoing provision for the primary area and the special funding arrangements for supplying extra teachers in schools in disadvantaged areas at post-primary level’.

7. TRAINING COURSES

7.1. FEMALE APPRENTICES ⁽⁹³⁾

7.1.1 Selection of Apprentices

The 1984 report of the Joint Committee included details regarding the numbers of females applying for apprenticeship training to the then National Manpower Service in the Dublin area. It has not been possible to locate parallel statistics for this area for the ensuing period but the apprenticeship statistics for the whole country for 1985-1986 and 1989 are presented at Table 40 below.

The percentage of female applicants for apprenticeships in 1985 was 6.4%; in 1986 it had dropped to 5% in 1986 and to 3.8% in 1989. Unlike previous years for which data are available female registration rates for 1989 were the same as female suitability rates. The imbalance in the numbers applying must be seen in conjunction with the data at 2.2 above in relation to the provision, allocation and choice of certain subjects at second level.

The 1984 J.O.C. Report commented on the selection procedures as follows: ’there appears to be a high level of sex discrimination in the selection procedures… there is a substantial drop from a male/female ratio of 27:1 as assessed as technically suited to a ratio of 95:1 as recruited after interview (1983 figures).’ The relevant ratios for 1983-89 are presented in Table 40.

TABLE 40 : Ratio of male to female AnCo/FÁS sponsored apprentices - (i) applicants (ii) assessed as technically suited (iii) registered for the first time (iv) at the end of 1 year (1983-89)

These figures refer to AnCo/FÁS sponsored apprenticeships only. Due to changes in the record keeping mechanism FÁS were unable to provide complete data for 1987 and 1988.

Applicants for Company sponsored apprenticeships apply directly to companies and FÁS has no knowledge of the extent of such applications. Over 70% of all apprentices in first year off the job training with FÁS in 1989 were sponsored by companies (see Table 42 below): this figure was only 37% in 1984 and there has been a drop of 300 (14%) in the total number of apprentices in that period.

“that it encourages all applicants for FÁS sponsored places to seek company sponsorship. Because of the requirement for a high level of company sponsorship it is not, therefore, very informative to make direct comparisons between the figures for 1985/86 and 1989”.

Testing procedures vary throughout the FÁS regions. It is now according to FÁS ‘common practice to invite all female applicants for interview regardless of their test results. Company sponsored apprentices do not go through selection procedures unless these are specifically requested by the employer’.

The imbalance between the ratio of women assessed as technically suited and the ratio of women registered for 1983-86 particularly is clearly evident from Table 40. The significant improvement for 1987 should be seen in the context of the special efforts made for that year in the case of six Training Centres (see 7.1.4 below); the figures for 1989 also show a significant improvement on the earlier period. The gap is, however, still a huge one.

The 1984 J.O.C. Report also refers to the figure of 108 female apprentices out of a total of 18,779 in December 1983. The figures for subsequent years are presented below.

TABLE 41 : The total numbers of registered apprentices for the period 1983-1989

The actual numbers of female apprentices remain very low. The ratio for 1989 was slightly better than in any previous year (the special Action Plan, described at 7.1.4 below, had been put in place in 1988) but the pattern in the intervening years was not consistent. Probably the most striking feature of the above Table is the reduction in the total number of apprentices by more than 1/3 over a six year period; as already noted some 70% of the 1989 intake were Company sponsored as against only 37% in 1984.

7.1.2 Placement of female apprentices

This has always been problematic. In the words of the 1984 Report of the Joint Committee ‘most employers show a preference for engaging a male rather than a female’. The figures for the placement of first year off-the-job apprentices are presented below for the period 1984-88.

TABLE 42 : First Year Off-the-Job Apprentices Placed (Percentage of Those who Completed Training and were Placed Shown in Brackets) 1984-89

There is a noticeable difference between the placement rates of Company and AnCo/FÁS sponsored apprentices: this is to be expected since the former are employees of their sponsors. Female placement rates tend to be somewhat lower than those for males. This has to be seen in the context of very different participation rates, (see Case Study at 7.1.5).

What about drop-out during the first year of training? The ratios of males/females dropping out during the first year of training were calculated on the basis of data provided by FÁS and the results are presented in Table 43.

TABLE 43 : Ratios of male/female apprentices who ’dropped out’ during the first year of training (1984-’89)

The above ratios should be seen in the context of the low numbers of females involved. The fact does remain however that proportionally more females than males dropped out during the first year of AnCo/FÁS sponsored apprenticeship training with the exception of 1986 (when only 7 female apprentices started training) and 1989 when only one of the 34 female apprentices quit - and she was Company sponsored..

7.1.3 Special Action Plan

A special Action Plan was piloted in six AnCo centres involving 25 females who began their apprenticeships in 1987. The Action Plan - which was intended to maintain and continue the emphasis recently started on recruitment of females to apprenticeship courses - was outlined by AnCo as follows:

(i)achieve a 10% female proportion to total apprentice intake to these training centres.

(ii)run a training workshop to raise equality awareness among training centre staff involved in apprenticeship recruitment, training and placement.

(iv)implement special promotional measures to assist the placement of trainees. This should be directed at employers.

Some members of this group dropped out during the year and efforts are being made to follow up on their reasons for doing so. The outcomes of the project are as follows:

TABLE 44 : Information regarding female apprentices in six Pilot Training Centres (N = 25)

These (young) women were placed during 1988. That means that 12 (17) of the AnCo sponsored female apprentices placed in 1988 were trained in the six pilot centres. The placement rate for all female apprentices who completed their year’s training in 1988 was 61% while that of the pilot centres was 60%; the national rate for the placement of apprentices in 1988 was 78%.

When we look at Table 45 below it would appear that the total number of AnCo/FÁS sponsored female apprentices in training in all 18 centres at the end of 1987 was 31. Of the 36 young women who started training as AnCo/FÁS sponsored apprentices in 1987, 25 (69%) had begun their apprenticeships in the 6 project training centres. It appears that this initiative did increase the numbers of participating females significantly - compare AnCo sponsored figures in Table 46 for 1987 with those for 1984-86 and 1988. It is also worth noting that a bridging type course was provided at the Athlone centre where the highest number of young women began - and completed - the course. Special efforts to attract female apprentices were also made by Monaghan COMTEC.

TABLE 45 : First Year Off-the-Job Apprentices In Training at end of Year (1984-89)

TABLE 46 : The Ratio of Male to Female Apprentices in training at the end of each year: (1984-89)

There is a marked change in the ratio of AnCo sponsored females for 1987. Two factors contributed to this:

(1)the significant drop in the numbers of AnCo sponsored male apprentices (this trend continued for 1988)

The 1989 figure is also encouraging. In November 1990 FÁS provided the following update on the Pilot Project referred to above.

“This Action Plan has been overtaken by the FÁS Positive Action Programme, 1990 (see 7.5). The thrust of our policy has shifted away from pilot programmes in this area towards increasing the representation of women in apprenticeship through (i) target setting (ii) the development of pre-apprenticeship training. In 1990 six such courses were run (Skills Sampling courses)”.

7.1.4 Case Study

This researcher decided to visit the Limerick FÁS centre where he discussed the above initiatives with the Manager. The proportion of female applicants in Limerick had been running at about 1.8% prior to 1987. The strategy adopted in an attempt to increase the participation rates of females was as follows:

1.A special ad was placed in 3 local papers and a circular was sent to the Career Guidance teacher in each second level school in the Mid-West region. The number of female applicants rose to 47 (from approx 17) - nearly 3 times as many as in previous years.

2.All 47 young women were called for aptitude test: 9 (19%) attended and all nine were called for interview. 7 (78%) attended the interview, 3 of whom opted out when they found out more about what was involved. 4 young women were considered suitable and were offered places in the following areas: Electrical; Fitter; Motor; Carpentry/Joinery.

*The ‘Electrical’ apprentice - who was the only female in a group of 36 - stayed for 13 weeks and then left, having wavered for some time.

*The fitter - who was the only female in a group of 24 - stayed for 27 weeks before leaving.

*The motor apprentice - who was the only female in a class of 30 - left after 30 weeks.

So the only one of the four to complete the year’s training was the young woman who did Carpentry/Joinery and ’she would have dropped out only for me’ according to the Manager of the Training Centre.

It has not been possible to find a placement for this young woman. All the young men who did Carpentry/Joinery are placed. The best that could be found for her was work experience. The reason given by the Manager is very simple: ‘it’s the employers’ attitudes’. He feels strongly that the situation can only change when employers are prepared to sponsor female apprentices. ’If an employer came to me asking for twelve female welders I’d have no problem finding them…they want to know is there a job in it for me?’

At present it would appear that employers simply do not want female apprentices for a variety of reasons including the lack of toilet facilities. He feels that an approach should be made first to the semi-state agencies.

He felt that the pilot project had backfired insofar as 4 places out of 24 had been allocated to young women and nothing had come out of it (all the rest of the apprentices were sponsored). Courses had been denied to 3 males and public money had, he felt, been wasted. There were no female apprentices in this centre during 1988-89.

7.1.5 New Approach to Apprenticeship

The FÁS Discussion Document published in December 1989 identifies four fundamental weaknesses in the current system:⁽⁹⁴⁾

There is no compulsory competency based standard which an apprentice must attain to operate as a craft worker.

The current system is too rigid to cope with the requirements for up-dating of skills in the light of new technology.

The current entry mechanism is not equitable because it is not always based on the best candidate getting an apprenticeship.

Approximately 1000 apprentices are still recruited directly every year by employers with varying training standards. These apprentices frequently do not attend an off-the-job training programme.

As part of the new proposals special provision is proposed for the following groups -

“Special measures need to be taken to increase the participation of women in apprenticeship. These include the provision of information, advice and special training for instructing staff.

A special preparation module would be established to assist women candidates for apprenticeship.

It is proposed that a target of 10% of apprenticeship places would be available to women. This target would be reviewed annually”.

FÁS has recently produced a promotional pamphlet on apprenticeships called “Anything he can do she can do too…”. This should prove useful for Career Guidance work in schools.

7.2 SENSITIZATION OF ANCO/FÁS STAFF IN RELATION TO GENDER ISSUES

FÁS supplied the following information regarding staff training/sensitization on gender issues in late 1988:

’In 1986 information workshops were held for all external trainers who had successfully passed through that tendering system. These sessions were held by the Equal Opportunities Unit of AnCo. They affirmed AnCo’s commitment to equality and also dealt with explanatory information on the organization’s Equal Opportunities Policy and practical aspects of good practice.

In 1987 and in 1988 a self-financing one day workshop was held for external trainers. This was organised by FÁS and conducted by an External Consultant who has extensive experience in the area of equal opportunities. The workshop was specifically designed to cover issues which are relevant to the work conducted by these external agents for FÁS.

In 1987 all Training Centres received an Information and Action Planning Workshop. This workshop reiterated Senior Management’s commitment to equal opportunities and was aimed specifically at Training Centre staff who have direct contact with trainees.

In 1986/87 the Staff Development Unit of AnCo organized a number of Sensitization/Attitudinal Equality workshops for staff. These were conducted by an External Consultant who has considerable expertise in the area.

Approximately 200 staff attended the workshops and follow-up. The programme was aimed at a wide cross-section of staff throughout the organization. This included Managers, Training Centre Staff, Recruitment Personnel and Welfare Officers.’

This issue has been addressed in their ’Positive Action Programme in Favour of Women, 1990’ (see 7.4 below). According to a FÁS spokesperson in November 1990 ’all staff development/staff briefing are now done on a regional basis. All staff have received a copy of the FÁS Positive Action Programme and have been briefed on same by their Managers’.

7.3 TRAINING PROGRAMMES

7.3.1 AnCo/FÁS Programmes

Community Training Workshops are part of the FÁS provision for Early School Leavers as are Skills Foundation Courses. In the case of both programmes the participants are required to sample a broad range of activities before opting for two specific areas. Thus, boys and girls participating in Community Training Workshops must take catering, woodwork, metalwork and basic office skills during the early part of the course before opting for two areas. The onset of ‘Youthreach’ has, according to FÁS, taken this on board.

Youthreach, starting from January 1989, is a joint Department of Education/Labour Social Guarantee programme which means that young people who leave school with poor or no qualifications are to be given the opportunity of special education and training programmes for up to two years. The first year (foundation) is spent on a specially designed VPT programme, a FÁS Youth Skills Programme or a Community Training Workshop. The Press Release issued on the occasion of the launch of Youthreach (October 1988) says that

‘the Vocational Preparation and Training Programme (VPT1) will be targetted at local needs and directed at encouraging take-up of non-traditional forms of training’.

It was not possible to include data on the implementation of Youthreach in this report it wasn’t scheduled to begin until January 1989 and was somewhat slow in getting off the ground.

In the case of the Teamwork Programme it was found necessary to introduce a ratio whereby no project could have more than 2 to 1 males to females or vice versa. It had been 4 male: 1 female. The report 50:50 Is Not Equality⁽⁹⁵⁾ states that nevertheless ‘Teamwork continues to demonstrate a differentiation, along traditional lines, of the kinds of work done by men and women despite some developments especially in urban areas’.

This report also comments critically on a number of other issues related to gender equality:

’Although overall participation rates for young men and women on Youth Employment Levy-funded programmes are now almost numerically equal, there continues to be a marked disparity between the types of programme taken by young men and women who are, in general, still following the traditional options. A number of examples illustrate the gravity of this problem:

*Although women constitute the majority of participants on the Work Experience Programme, the scheme has not provided opportunities for the diversification of young women’s work experience: most of the female participants continue to gain their experience in office work. [Note: the WEP has been discontinued].

*Despite the adoption of an equal opportunities policy plus the introduction of a small number of pilot programmes and a real increase in the number of women participants on programmes, AnCo has not succeeded in moving women or men in significant numbers to non-traditional training programmes.

*The Vocational Preparation and Training Programme (VPT) run by the Department of Education, has a marked concentration of courses (55%) in the commercial areas, though in fact considerably more boys than girls now leave school without taking Leaving Certificate. Girls do not participate to any significant extent on VPT Construction and Engineering courses and 75% of them follow the commercial course.

*In CERT where there are about equal numbers of boys and girls taking courses, there are marked tendencies for particular career routes to be chosen by one or the other sex.

There has been little or no real change in the presentation and distribution of young men and women on non-traditional training programmes despite the introduction of employment equality legislation and the more recent adoption by the Youth Employment Agency of an Equal Opportunities Policy which extends to all of the delivery agencies. It is clear that although a more equal numerical balance in participation rates has been achieved, a more positive action-orientated approach must be adopted in order to surmount the persistent obstacles which prevent equality of access to the full range of available programmes. Such positive actions will involve, in some cases, staff-training, the redesign of communications materials and, possibly, settling of quotas on certain courses and programmes’.

The training agencies responded to the above by drawing up their individual action plans: these have subsequently been overtaken by the new FÁS programme of 1990 outlined at 7.4 below.

7.3.2 Vocational Preparation and Training Programmes

In the Department of Education Guidelines for VPT Programmes the importance of avoiding sexism is stressed. While there are approximately two girls doing VPT for every boy this ratio is “in direct contrast to the outflow of early school-leavers, which shows that boys make up some 64% of those who leave with Intermediate or Group Certificate as their highest examination. This imbalance is due at least in part to the fact that, in some areas of the country, only traditional commercial-type programmes are offered, and, as a result, male uptake is low.⁽⁹⁶⁾ This Y.E.A. Report identifies three problems/issues including the ‘concentration of both boys and girls in sex stereotyped VPT programmes’ and suggests that ‘A proactive approach is required from the Department of Education to ensure a better spread of provision across areas and designations and to rectify imbalances in gender participation’.

The information brochure published by the Department of Education in November 1986 tells us that 15,807 students in 380 schools participated in VPT during the school year 1984-5: 68% of participants were female. According to a report (prepared for the Department of Education by ESRI)⁽⁹⁷⁾

“The preponderance of girls reflects the large numbers previously taking secretarial courses and the relatively high participation rate of girls’ secondary schools in the programme. Participants may be divided into two broad categories: those with a median age of approximately 16 years, whose highest previous qualification was the Intermediate or Group Certificate and those aged 18 years and over with Leaving Certificate or higher. In the latter group, girls outnumbered boys 9:1 while in the former there were slightly more males than females”. (53% to 47%)

The report on which the brochure is based identifies a high level of sex-stereotyping in relation to (a) vocational designations taken by boys/girls (b) work experience.

“Eight vocational designations were offered, and, in addition, schools were encouraged to develop alternative designations in response to local needs. The most frequently offered designations were Commerce (offered by 73% of all schools) Construction and Engineering (both 34%). Disappointingly, only 7% of schools offered the Electrics/Electronics and 6% the Science options. As might be expected, take-up by participants largely reflected this pattern, though only a very small percentage opted for the Agriculture designation (2% take-up, against 9% of schools offering it) and of post-leaving certificate participants, over 80% chose the Commercial designation.

Single sex schools, especially girls’ schools, showed a traditional and often stereotyped approach to the provision of vocational designations, girls’ schools offering only three of the eight options (Commerce, Craft and Design and Services). While boys’ schools offered seven of the eight options (the exception being the Commerce option) the actual numbers of males selecting non-traditional options were low. Overall, the selection of designations by participants largely reflected this pattern of provision and all designations, except Craft and Design, show considerable differences in take up between females and males.

Almost all participants had been on work experience by the time the Survey was carried out in February/March, some of them in three or more locations. The types of businesses in which these placements were offered broadly reflect the areas of employment of young school leavers, as given in the School Leavers’ Surveys, though with one notable exception: Agriculture, where 6% of 1984 school leavers in employment were located, provided less than 2% of all placements. There was little evidence of any movement away from stereotyping in the selection of work experience placements’.

The most recent study on VPT commissioned by the Department (to be published) does not provide information on the uptake of vocational designations by gender. The most up to date statistics in relation to participation in VPT would indicate that overall participation rates have risen from approx. 15,500 in 1984/5 to almost 27,000 approved places in 1990/91, of which almost 18,000 places were in VPT2, the post Leaving Certificate area. A breakdown by gender is not available for recent years.

7.3.3 Other Recent Initiatives Involving Training Agencies/Schools

7.3.3.1 SPIRAL II

The SPIRAL II Project on Transition from School to Adult and Working Life had gender equity as one of its concerns. (see 2.3. and 4.5 above).

One of its activities involved a joint initiative with AnCo which was designed to familiarise young women with non-traditional activities and careers. The internal evaluation report prepared by the Project on this initiative - which involved the attendance of small groups of school-going young women at the AnCo Training Centre in Limerick for three weeks - was very positive. This initiative was piloted early in 1986 and, despite the positive evaluation, has not been replicated up to recently. It is my understanding that the Cork COMTEC group had hoped to make similar provision for girls doing VPT in their plan and that it will be replicated as part of the PETRA Project in Tallaght which began in 1989.

7.3.3.2 PETRA

PETRA stands for Partnership in Education and Training. The Tallaght PETRA Project is a joint venture designed to reinforce young women’s ability to enter non-traditional careers. It is targeted at young “disadvantaged” women from 16-18 years, with limited educational qualifications and/or early school leavers. These women are participants in the Department of Education’s Vocational Preparation and Training Programme.

*To give participants exposure to non-traditional work areas and to give them a working knowledge of what is required to enter these areas.

*To encourage an attitude change in what is a ‘suitable’ career for young women and to encourage them to look in an informed way at a wider range of career choices.

The programme is based in Tallaght Training Centre and it is proposed that young women will be released on a day-release basis over the duration of their VPT programme.

7.3.4 New Technology Workshop

The field of microcomputers and electronics is currently experiencing tremendous growth and many young people are being trained to take advantage of openings in these areas. Research in Ireland has shown that women as a group are very much under-represented at technical levels within the microcomputing and electronics industry. According to the 1989 Report published by the Irish Advisory Group of the European Network on the Diversification of Vocational Choice for Young and Adult Women (B 11) there is extreme gender segregation in the Irish electronics industry: only 3% of the managers were women; around 15% of all professionals were women; over 70% of all operatives/assembly workers were women in a context where employees in all grades are young. In order to redress this imbalance, the New Technology Workshop for Women was designed and set up by FÁS as a pilot programme with funding from the European Social Fund under its Innovatory Projects programme.

The aim of this course was to train 40 women to a level of competence which would enable them to find employment in electronic/software industries at technician level. The target group were women with little or no knowledge or experience of electronics/microcomputing, appropriate City and Guilds of London standard in either computer programming or electronic engineering. The course - of 48 weeks duration - ran from December 1987 - December 1988.

Trainees were split into two groups of 20 - one specialising in microcomputer programming, the other in electronics. All 40 trainees came together for the career planning and goal setting module which covered confidence building/assertiveness training; career planning/goal setting/decision making; job seeking/retention skills; dual career role theory; study skills/time management; networking/support systems; and speakers/role models.

Those on the computer course were trained in computer appreciation and application and in computer programming at junior level and had a module on advanced systems analysis to help trainees to explore the techniques used in analysing and designing computer-based systems. The course also included 12 weeks work experience during which trainees worked as programmers, trainee systems analysts or within sales support teams. Those on the electronics course received training in basic introductory electronics, elements of microcomputing and programming and in advanced electronics. An evaluation of this programme is nearing completion. The Dublin West Region of FÁS will run a second modified version of this programme in 1989 with 20 participants who will undertake training in Electronics. This will be run as a mainline Specific Employable Skills course.

7.4 POSITIVE ACTION PROGRAMME IN FAVOUR OF WOMEN (FÁS 1990)

Prior to their amalgamation, the Training Agencies had developed policies and action plans in relation to gender equity (these plans are presented in the publication ’50:50 Is Not Equality’.

In April 1990 FÁS published its ’Positive Action Programme in Favour of Women’.

7.4.1 The Programme has the following objectives: ⁽⁹⁸⁾

*to promote actively the breaking down of traditional patterns of occupational segregation by encouraging increased female participation in sectors of the labour market traditionally dominated by men.

*to promote actively the participation of women at all levels in growing future-oriented sectors of the labour market including technical and managerial occupations, in order to achieve better use of human resources.

There is a recognition that ‘parents, the education system and employers play a central role in influencing attitudes and in encouraging girls and women to consider non-traditional careers’.

The Programme which will build on progress made in previous years, focuses primarily on the current year but is also a longer-term developmental programme. ‘It is a rolling plan which will be revised annually with a major review after three years… The responsibility for local implementation and monitoring of the programme lies with the 10 Regional Directors and their Regional Management teams’.⁽⁹⁹⁾

The regular liaison which takes place between FÁS and the Employment Equality Agency will continue and there will also be regular liaison between FÁS and the Department of Labour and other external parties.

7.4.2 The following ACTIONS are proposed in the programme⁽¹⁰⁰⁾

Statistics/FÁS literature

*It is FÁS policy to provide statistical information on participation on all FÁS Programmes with a gender breakdown. This will be implemented fully as soon as systems are in place. In particular the Labour Market Monthly will provide this information on a monthly basis.

*The bi-annual Labour Market Review produced by FÁS will include analyses of female participation in the labour force in Ireland and internationally and will address issues relevant to this participation.

*All new manuals and contracts for FÁS Programmes will, in future, include guidelines on Equal Opportunities.

—A Code of Practice for all FÁS staff.

—A package of promotional literature.

*It is FÁS policy that all FÁS promotional literature and advertisements contain a statement asserting FÁS’s commitment to Equal Opportunity. This will be implemented for all new promotional products.

Curriculum & Staff Development

*An Equal Opportunities module will be designed for incorporation into all FÁS courses. The module will be piloted in three regions in 1990 through the PETRA project, focusing on young people in transition from school to work.

*Appropriate Staff Development initiatives carried out in 1990 will have an Equal Opportunities input, e.g., briefings, induction, Customer Service Courses, Management Development, Open-Learning Programmes, Instructor training.

*Regional Directors will take account of Equal Opportunities needs in implementing their Staff Development Programmes. An Equal Opportunities dimension will be included in the Certificate Level Training Technology Programme for instructing staff for use in 1990.

*A third self-financing Equal Opportunities Workshop for External Trainers will be undertaken in 1990.

Barriers to Womens’ Participation in FÁS Programmes

*During 1990 FÁS will examine issues surrounding the barriers which may be present for women with family ties who wish to participate in FÁS Programmes. This will include examination of provision of creche facilities.

*FÁS will undertake a research project into issues surrounding female participation in non-traditional training.

Promotion of Equal Opportunities

*Each region will take steps to promote Equal Opportunities. Regional Directors will allocate a budget for this purpose and will allocate regional responsibility for the planning and co-ordination of all such promotional activities to one Manager.

—direct girl’s and women’s choices towards non-traditional training and occupations;

—actively encourage the recruitment by employers of women into non-traditional occupations.

—career guidance teachers

—other teachers

—employers

—parents and girls

*FÁS will discuss with the Institute of Guidance Counsellors and the Department of Education how FÁS could assist and participate in local, school organised promotional activities. Examples of FÁS support in this area will include:

—FÁS participation in seminars for career guidance teachers.

—FÁS support to schools in facilitating talks to school girls, e.g. by identifying young women already in non-traditional careers, by supplying promotional literature, etc.

—Regions will also use local media to heighten awareness and highlight successes todate.

—FÁS ’Open Days’ will include specific promotion for school girls and their parents.

—FÁS Services to Industry staff in the regions will promote equal opportunities through meetings and contacts with industry.

7.4.3 Programme Initiatives and Targets in Training ⁽¹⁰¹⁾

7.4.3.1 Apprenticeship

As has been noted above ’FÁS wishes to increase significantly the rate of female participation in apprenticeship over the three year period 1990-1993’. The programme suggests that ’As the pool of successful female apprentices increases, barriers to female participation will gradually decrease’. The programme states that

’As well as promoting apprenticeship to school girls, the following groups will form target groups for recruitment -

Selection Female applicants should in general go through the normal selection procedures. The final selection of FÁS sponsored apprentices should reflect, as far as possible, the female/male ratio of candidates who are interviewed. Each Region will keep statistics on male and female applicants at each stage of the selection process’.

‘The target intake of first-year-off-the-job apprentices into FÁS in 1990 is 52 from a proposed total intake of 1,922. The 1990 target is a significant increase on previous levels of female participation in Apprenticeship’.

*FÁS will sponsor 10 bursaries in 1990 for new female apprentices. This scheme, which will operate on a pilot basis for one year in four regions, will provide additional financial support to assist with apprenticeship support costs during the off-the-job period.

*To ensure commitment to apprenticeship and to minimise drop-out rates amongst female apprentices, each region will design and implement an induction process for successful applicants to apprenticeship, with particular attention being paid to the needs of female trainees. The objective of this induction is to prepare fully participants for apprenticeship by rectifying skills deficiencies and developing motivation and support mechanisms to ensure commitment over time.

*FÁS recognises that female apprentices face particular difficulties in completing their apprenticeships and in securing employment. Each FÁS region will work closely with local industry to overcome this problem and will identify and implement a set of positive measures aimed at overcoming these difficulties. (my italics)

7.4.3.2 Specific Skills Training

In 1990 and 1991 activity in this programme category will continue to focus on increasing participation by women in areas of non-traditional activity.

Each FÁS region has nominated at least one course per Training Centre for special focus in 1990 in terms of achieving a significant switch towards female participation.

Throughput by women in contracted Specific Skills Training during 1989 was 743 women (47%). This positive trend will be continued by maintaining this level of participation in 1990. Attention will be paid to the composition of participation on all courses to ensure female participation.

7.4.3.3 Other Training Initiatives

These courses are specifically aimed at women and usually are offered on a part-time basis. Throughput on these courses in 1989 was 652 women. Given the high level of demand for these courses FÁS will continue to offer them in 1990 with a planned throughput of 960. Each region is encouraged to undertake these courses within the following guidelines:

—the specific skills training element to be enlarged;

—where possible, courses should be used as a bridge to Specific Skills Training.

These courses have mainly over 25 year old male and female participation and are run on a full-time basis within Training Centres and externally. The courses aim to provide a range of skills sampling to participants as well as general preparation for entry to paid employment. Three hundred and fifty-one women were trained in 1989. In 1990 FÁS will maintain the current high level of female throughput. Use of this course as a feeder into Specific Skills Training courses will be encouraged. Planned throughput for 1990 is 430 women.

To encourage young women to broaden their career choices, regions will design and implement a programme which will offer opportunities particularly, but not exclusively, to young women to sample skills in non-traditional areas. The skills will be in the craft apprenticeship and/or Specific Skills Training areas. A major objective of these programmes will be to encourage suitable applications for apprenticeship and specific skills training in 1990 and 1991. Regions are encouraged to develop these programmes as a joint venture with semi-state and private industries.

This programme has been piloted in Dublin North in 1989 and will be extended to the North-East, Midlands, South-East in 1990 and will form part of the PETRA Programme. The training days will normally be allocated to the Skills Foundation Programme.

This programme provides an opportunity for young people to sample a wide range of skills especially in construction type projects. In 1989 the level of female throughput was 10.7% (352 women). The target throughput of women for 1990 is estimated to be 15%. Participants will be encouraged to apply for Apprenticeship and Specific Skills Training on completion of this training.

FÁS has projects underway within the IRIS and PETRA networks and new projects have been submitted to each of these programmes for 1990. During 1990 and 1991 support will continue to be given to regions to continue to develop such initiatives.

7.4.4 FÁS Employment Services - Programme Initiatives & Targets ⁽¹⁰²⁾

The Social Employment Scheme

Women’s throughput on the Social Employment Scheme in 1989 was approximately 14% (an estimated throughput of 1579). Regions will seek to increase this to a planned throughput of 17% in 1990 to more closely reflect the fact that women over 25 years who are long-term unemployed account for 24% of all those registered in this category.

Achievement of this target will require cooperation from Schemes’ Sponsors who are responsible for participant selection. Persons put forward to sponsors for selection will comprise an average of 20% of women. Selection will be monitored locally to ensure that objective selection criteria are adhered to.

Each region will encourage sponsors to initiate at least three SES schemes in 1990 which will offer a significant level of non-traditional activity to female participants.

Regions will encourage sponsors of employment schemes to undertake a more general role in the promotion of Equal Opportunities.

Recruitment

When advising employers with regard to recruitment FÁS will ensure that they are aware of their legal responsibilities under the Employment Equality Act (1977). This will be incorporated into the FÁS Code of Practice which will be produced in 1990.

7.4.5 Services to Industry ⁽¹⁰³⁾

FÁS Services to Industry has a particular role to play in encouraging employers to sponsor female apprentices and to recruit women into non-traditional and new areas of work. This role is incorporated into other sections of the Programme.

Services to Industry has also a special role in the development of initiatives which will achieve the objectives of the Programme for women already employed in industry.

Each Region, through its Services to Industry function, will work with local employers to encourage them to design and implement Positive Action Programmes for their existing female employees.

To promote and encourage such action amongst employers, FÁS will include in the Guidelines for Training Grants and Levy Schemes for each Industrial Designation, Positive Action Programmes in favour of women employees.

FÁS will work with each Industrial Training Committee to encourage them to develop initiatives to promote the participation of women at all levels of their industries.

8. ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION

8.1. INTRODUCTION

The Report of the Commission on Adult Education, Lifelong Learning, published in 1983 has submitted that, at this time of rapid change, adult education is not a luxury but an essential. The Report which recognised the changing position of women in Irish society, recognized that adult education has grown in an unplanned way in response to needs and problems and it called for an integrated adult education policy in view of the changed perception of adult education. The major impediments to the development of adult education are outlined in the Report as:⁽¹⁰⁴⁾

‘The multiplicity and variety of agencies with a major or peripheral involvement in adult education is indicative of widespread interest, considerable activity and a great deal of goodwill. However, the submissions made to the Commission also highlight numerous faults, frustrations felt by providers and participants, and areas in which the reality falls far short of the ideal.

(i)Adult education is too often perceived as a relatively minor adjunct of second and third level education, destined to occupy a subordinate position in planning and expenditure of resources.

(ii)The financial constraints and the administrative points system used in the statutory sector have placed the emphasis on quantity rather than quality, discouraged innovation and limited the extent to which providers can serve the more disadvantaged elements of the community.

(iii)There is a shortage of effective tutors for adults, particularly in rural areas. Very few have even elementary training and the official rate of remuneration is too low to provide an incentive. Evaluation procedures are, at best, haphazard.

(v)There is a marked absence of adult education counselling and guidance. Many participants appear to enter courses with only a vague idea of course content and objectives.

(vi)Access to the mainstream formal education system through second chance adult education is very restricted as the third-level entrance requirements, and the Department of Education’s regulations on second-level examinations, are not sufficiently flexible. The whole area of accreditation and certification is regarded as unsatisfactory.

(vii)Opportunities for day-time classes are limited, being constrained by the non-availability of tutors, suitable accommodation and creche facilities. Regulations requiring an adult to be almost fully timetabled for the school week to qualify for classification as a second-level student militates particularly against housewives, while social welfare regulations discourage the unemployed.

(viii)Very little use has been made of technological advances even on an experimental basis. Present copyright laws restrict (off air) recording thus inhibiting the maximum use for adult education purposes of broadcast materials.

(ix)The status and remuneration of the school based adult education officers (through a retrospective points system) is insufficient to attract and retain persons of the calibre required.

(x)There is evidence of dissatisfaction among Adult Education Organisers because of the contrast between their wide-ranging brief and the resources at their disposal to realise it.

(xi)Many adult education sub-committees of the Vocational Education Committees are unsure of their role, resent their lack of independence and believe they should have discretionary powers in the allocation of monies.

(xii)The non-statutory providers of adult education feel their contribution is undervalued and want easier access to some element of public funding, without being forced to surrender their independence.

(xiii)Though the potential contribution of the voluntary secondary school system to adult education would appear to be considerable, it is at present relatively minor. The Department of Education does not provide the resources to these schools to organise programmes on the same basis as Vocational Education Committees and comprehensive and community schools.

The Report recognised ‘women’s education, including career development and mobility education, as one of the fields in which important work is being done, in view of the changing role of women in Irish society and in the light of the considerable fall in the average age of women at marriage, smaller families and longer life expectancy’.

It endorsed that work and recommended that further development be encouraged and assisted by the government, employers and trade unions in association with the adult education organisations.

8.2 NATIONAL ADULT LITERACY SCHEME

The recommendation in the J.O.C. Report regarding funding for the National Adult Literacy Scheme has met with a favourable response. The annual grants since 1985 under the Adult Literacy and Community Education Scheme are set out below. Under this scheme literacy and community education is provided free of charge or at a minimal cost in co-operation with other state and non-state agencies.

These funds are directly available for Adult Literacy. While the fact of its being granted on a year to year basis has made it difficult to plan ahead, it has certainly enabled significant developments and has benefited women in particular. The Youth Section within the Department also provides funding for some further projects aimed at disadvantaged youth.

In her Budget Estimates speech on December 1st, 1989 the Minister for Education said

“Next year is International Literacy Year and the Government have decided to establish a Cabinet Sub-Committee comprising the Minister for Labour, the Minister for Social Welfare and myself, as Chairperson, to co-ordinate proposals in this area to ensure that the various resources available for adult literacy and community education and training schemes are used in the most effective and coherent way. Increased funding will be allocated to particular schemes”.

Under an ’E/C Action Research Project in the field of the Prevention of and Combating Illiteracy’ the Irish Project, which is being managed by the Educational Research Centre, is entitled ’A Study of the Implementation and Effects of a Parent-Involvement Programme in a Disadvantaged Area’. It is based in three schools in the centre of Dublin and 42 parents and their children were involved up to September 1989. Preliminary evaluation reports point to the well known difficulty of getting parents in such areas involved in educational activities with their children.

According to the Department of Education there has been a substantial increase (since 1982) in the numbers participating in adult literacy schemes: this increase is seen as resulting from the provision of the Adult Literacy and Community Education Scheme and the increase in the range of provision and work of NALA which was given a grant for an office and staff. While up-to-date complete statistics are not available we do know that enrolments on adult literacy courses in VEC and Community/Comprehensive schools totalled 2,789 in 1988-89 while the NALA survey of 1988 showed 4,100 taking tuition compared to less than 1,200 in 1982 (this includes the VECs, FÁS, Prisons and other areas). FÁS figures for May 1989 show over 2,300 taking literacy tuition in its Community Training Workshops and in Travellers’ Training Centres. A breakdown by gender is not available for this data.

While the world trend is one where women have lower levels of literacy than men⁽¹⁰⁵⁾ 63% of all illiterates were women in 1985 and some 28% of the world’s population is classified as illiterate - the most recent data available from NALA shows that 55% of those receiving literacy help in the Republic of Ireland in 1989 were males while 77% of tutors were female.

8.3 ADULT EDUCATION PROVISION

The major impediment to the promotion of adult education identified by the Report Lifelong Learning is that ’adult education is too often perceived as a relatively minor adjunct of second and third level education, destined to occupy a subordinate position in planning and expenditure of resources’. The clear impression of this researcher is that those who are involved in adult education believe that in recessionary times adult education is the first to suffer. An Adult Education Officer working in a large urban area said to me in November 1988 that ’the picture is depressing and gloomy. Because the Government input is minimal the system is becoming marginalised. It is the soft underbelly which is the first to suffer’.

The V.E.C.s have the main state role in providing adult education and assessing the needs in their areas. General adult education is provided by them on a self-financing basis and they also provide second-chance education at 30% of cost. As can be seen from Table 48 there were 108,500 enrolments on part-time adult education courses (including adult literacy) in Vocational Schools, Community and Comprehensive Schools, R.T.C.s and Technology Colleges during the academic year 1988-89 (an increase of 5% over 1987-88) of which 68% were women. Data are not available for years prior to 1987-88 or in relation to the private sector at any time. During 1988-89 an additional 12,530 participants enrolled in Distance Education and Extra-Mural courses at third level.

The Department of Education is providing £244,000 in grants-in-aid for the general expenses of Adult Education organisations in 1991 - a rise of 55% on the 1988 figure.

The Vocational Training Opportunity Scheme (V.T.O.S.) (formerly known as the Eductional Opportunity Scheme) was introduced by the Department of Education in 1987 on a pilot basis and has subsequently been developed. The V.T.O.S. is a form form of second-chance education for adults 21 years of age and over who have been unemployed for at least 15 months.

The courses under the scheme lead to certification by the V.E.C.s and it will also be possible to follow courses leading to Leaving Certificate, Intermediate Certificate and other examinations at the same levels. The choice of subjects depends on what can be made available at a particular centre in consultation with participants. Participants need a reasonable level of literacy to benefit from V.T.O.S. courses.

There are no fees charged for the courses. Participants receive an allowance equal to their Unemployment Benefit/Assistance. Where a participant has been in receipt of other Social Welfare benefits, entitlement to these will continue. In addition participants receive travelling expenses and meal allowances.

The courses are full-time year long courses of 30 hours a week. It is envisaged that attendance on the V.T.O.S. would be for one year but may be extended to two years. Continuance beyond this would be subject to review.

The courses are primarily intended for those who do not have qualifications at Leaving Certificate level. However those with poor grades in their Leaving Certificate can also be accepted if it is considered that their employment opportunities will be enhanced.

The Department does not have information on child-minding facilities available to those participating in adult education courses. Such facilities may be organised at local level.

Initially three groups operated successfully in two centres (Limerick, Tallaght) on a pilot basis. Ten further centres were established in Autumn 1989, and there were 20 centres in April 1990. As of August 1990 there were 33 such groups located in 24 centres. Each group can cater for some twenty people making for a total of approximately 660 places in August 1990. The Minister announced in his Budget speech the establishment of a further 25 groups in September next which will increase the total number of places provided under the programme by 510 to 1560. He went on to say that:

“The growth in the number of places provided under the Vocational Training Opportunity scheme will be accompanied by a continuation of the scheme introduced by the Minister for Social Welfare whereby up to 200 long term unemployed adults may avail of third level education while continuing their social welfare entitlements.

A similar scheme operates to facilitate re-entry to education/training at second level with no limit on the number of places.

In order to ensure that there are no financial barriers to participation on these schemes a special fund has been included for the first time in the 1992 Estimates to cover the cost of books, travel and meal allowances, registration fees etc., for long term unemployed trainees availing of education/training across a range of programmes outside the VTOS”.

The facility whereby adults can do the Leaving Certificate over a period of time (by taking even one subject per year) makes second chance education more accessible. The National Council for Educational Awards (N.C.E.A.) has introduced a credit system for certain adult education courses to facilitate re-entry which enables ’adults obtain nationally and internationally recognised certificates, diplomas and degrees for each part of a course they complete’. The N.C.E.A. has also introduced Personal and Social Development type programmes to support those wishing to avail of the opportunity of second chance education.

The Programme for National Recovery (1987) included a commitment to community education and adult literacy⁽¹⁰⁶⁾. The Programme for Economic and Social Progress (69, n) includes a commitment to the further development of the Vocational Training Opportunities Scheme (VTOS) and the Youthreach Scheme for early school leavers and other literacy and community programmes.

’Developments will include greater promotion of courses and seeking out of those in need of help, more systematic monitoring and evaluation of achievements in meeting objectives, certification of attainment, development of bridging or access courses for those completing to facilitate progress to VTOS, VPT, FÁS and other courses and the strengthening of arrangements and implementation capabilities at the local level to include the assignment of appropriate VEC staff to co-ordinate these developments. Progress will be monitored by the Central Review Committee in the context of the Area-Based Strategy’.

This latter strategy will be piloted in both rural and urban areas in 1991. A specific budget will be prepared by the relevant public authorities for each participating local area. The budget for each participating area will include the following particular modules and initiatives in relation to education:

—VTOS

—Part-time Education initiative

—Third Level Education (Pilot scheme)

—Second level educational initiative

—Vocational Training Preparation scheme (Dublin)

The Programme for Economic and Social Progress (69, o) also proposes the provision of ’end-on skill training’ for those completing their formal schooling so as to equip them for the world of work. This will involve:

’providing second chance education/training including literacy programmes for those who leave the school system prematurely; facilitating mature students within the educational system in upgrading their education or training levels; co-operating with FÁS in relation to its training remit for the workforce. Other adult education initiatives by educational institutions generally, responsive to demand, and on a self-financing basis are being promoted. A consultative group will be set up to advise on an ongoing basis on development needs in adult education and training’.

8.4 THE EFFECTS OF CUT-BACKS ON ADULT EDUCATION PROVISION

The situation as reported by AONTAS is that in 1987 the Government implemented certain measures to curtail expenditure and that these measures reduced the resources available to adult education⁽¹⁰⁷⁾ in the following ways:

*There was an even stricter application of the self-financing rule affecting adult education courses. As well as having to cover the cost of tutor’s fees from 1987 onwards the Department required an extra charge of “at least 30%” to cover overheads. (This did not apply to second chance learning course fees which only had to cover 30% of the total costs).

*The reductions in the budget for V.E.C.’s and Community and Comprehensive Schools mainly affected non-pay expenditure. This led to the early closing of many educational buildings throughout the country, access to which is essential for running adult education courses and voluntary group activities.

*The levels of grant-in-aid to various non-statutory bodies involved in adult education were reduced by up to 33%. These groups include the People’s College, the Dublin Institute Adult of Education, N.A.L.A. (National Adult Literary Agency) and AONTAS itself.

According to the AONTAS Report Decline in Adult Education Provision in Ireland’ (March 1988)

“These effects were all the more harmful because, in comparison with other sectors of education, adult education is grossly underfunded. There are no definite figures available for government expenditure on adult education. In June 1984, the Commission on Lifelong Learning estimated it to be £4 million per annum. On the basis of the £1,000 million spent in 1987, this represents 0.4% of the total education budget”.

The Aontas publication For Adults Only, A Case for Adult Education in Ireland (1989) states in relation to 1987 that

“Out of this (education) budget adult education received approximately one-sixth of one per cent (0.16%)”

The report suggests that the efffect of the self-financing rule is that the viability of courses depends on numbers enrolling and that fees rise in accordance with rising costs of provision.

The Department of Education has pointed out that the identifiable provision for adult education for 1990 was £6.31m: this represents .52% of the Education Budget and does not include an estimated £2.7m spent by V.E.C.’s as well as other non-pay costs in relation to self-financing courses or courses at third level.

The main conclusions of the AONTAS research into the effects of the cut-backs on 1987-88 provision, based on the findings of a postal questionnaire sent to the key providers, were as follows:

“The main finding of this report is that there has been a gradual but steady erosion in the provision of adult education in this country during the last year”.

TABLE 48 : Enrolments in Part-Time Adult Education Courses during the Academic Years 1987/88 and 1988/89.

During 1988-89 76% of those enrolled on day-time courses and 67% of those enrolled on night-time courses were women. No information was available regarding the number of courses provided. The highest proportions of participants were enrolled at 1 (c), 1 (b) and particularly 1 (g) as identified above.

The most recent Aontas Report,⁽¹⁰⁸⁾ based also on a postal questionnaire to key providers, Steady as She Sinks, The Decline of Adult Education in Ireland, A Survey of Courses Provided in Autumn 1988, includes the following overall findings.

1.There was a decline of 17% in the number of courses provided in Ireland during the past year.

5.The decline in provision was not uniform. Some centres, for example those providing day-time courses, showed an increase. Other centres, particularly those in rural areas, were almost wiped out.

“Our research this year, which compares Autumn 1987 and Autumn 1988 indicates a continued decline in adult education.......... We have evidence, not only of some centres closing down, but of whole counties being left almost completely without adult education provision.

The survey findings indicate that the cutbacks on services and facilities is having an effect on the quality of adult education provision. Secretarial assistance and advertising, in particular, have been affected. There is evidence from the written comments given by respondents that morale among some adult educationalists is at a low ebb.

Once again the cutbacks have most affected the poor and disadvantaged members of society, especially those dependent on social welfare payments”.

The Report contains some illuminating comments in relation to the workload of Adult Education Officers (A.E.O.s) and to the provision of Adult Education Programmes in schools.

“Though we had a very substantial Adult Education Programme in this school for many years, it has been reduced to a nominal level. The reasons for this were -

1.No teacher is willing to take on the job of School Adult Education Officer. Day school posts are less arduous.

2.It is very difficult to get sufficient numbers in classes to break even. We have a relatively confined catchment area.

3.Good tutors are hard to find for the rate (less tax) payable. It is much easier for them to do classes in the “black” economy.

4.The recession brought a fall-off of participants, especially when it coincided with the necessary raising of class fees.

5.When the Adult Education Organiser for the area resigned in 1987 the VEC appointed no successor.

At present we merely respond to an organised group which approaches us, providing a tutor and facilities”.

‘Adult Literacy classes at risk mainly because the AEO has no time to spare. AEOs are in no man’s land: the Government should make up their minds whether they want AEOs or not’.

The A.E.O. to whom I spoke in November 1988 reported a drop of one-third in enrolments to Adult Education provision (other than Adult Literacy) in his area of greater Dublin during 1988-89 He suggested that the V.E.C.s have been forced to give priority to day school students with the result that expenses such as caretaking, lighting, heating were now being met out of the course fees.

Nevertheless he says that there has been a dramatic growth in day time provision for adults - and for women in particular - over the years 1984-87; this growth is now being eroded by cut-backs. There has been a move away from hobby education to second chance education and themes such as personal growth, health etc. The development of women’s groups has been ’a groundswell … a spontaneous growth’ which has very often been concentrated in working class areas. As of January 1990 there were 44 Day Time Groups in existence, 13 of them in the greater Dublin area. The IDEA (Improvement of Daytime Education for Adults) group was established on a voluntary basis in 1984. These groups are all the more significant because of the fact that their members very often have to make all the necessary practical arrangements e.g. creche, accommodation, funding: ’the numbers increase wherever a creche is provided’.

The Aontas Report ’For Adults Only’⁽¹⁰⁹⁾ acknowledges the significance of the growth of adult education provision for women:

Since the early 1980’s the most vibrant, dynamic and innovate area of adult education has been women’s education. With the provision of morning classes and creche facilities, women began to use adult education to develop confidence, to examine their role in society and to continue their education.

Women have traditionally been the main consumers of adult education. The traditional kind of adult education courses which were offered to them reflected the position and role of women in Irish society as perceived by providers who are mostly men. While the traditional courses on offer, such as cookery, dress-making, arts etc., fulfil an important need, they can nevertheless reinforce the passive and non-critical role of women in society…

Courses which include personal devleopment and courses which address social and political issues are beginning to allow women to reflect on and challenge their traditional roles’

‘The experience regarding accommodation has been that schools are being made available if and when surplus accommodation is available. The A.E.O. interviewed in November 1988 cited an example where it wasn’t possible to provide classes for 300 interested adults because the school caretaker couldn’t be replaced under existing regulations. Primary school furnishings are not suitable even where empty classrooms are made available.

It appears that at least one Health Board (Western) has been funding Adult Education provision and this includes providing support for Women’s Groups.

The £500 grant available during the time of the Fine Gael/Labour Coalition Government enabled the establishment of Day Time Education Groups in many areas. This grant has been discontinued but The Combat Poverty Agency has supported such groups since 1987 with support from the Department of Social Welfare. The Agency has published a very useful report on its programmes for women.⁽¹¹⁰⁾

The Community University Project (C.U.P.)

The Community University Project started in October 1985 in St Peter’s School Killester. The aim of the Project was to bring third level courses out into the community. It started in 1985 with three subjects - History, Sociology and English - later adding Politics, Philosophy and Psychology.

The courses are run from the Extra Mural Department at U.C.D. and are of 20 weeks duration (2 terms). They are run in the mornings from 10.00 a.m. to 12.00 noon with an hour lecture followed by coffee and discussion.

In the third term March-June the Group runs V.E.C. short courses e.g. Personal Effectiveness, Enjoying Literature, Anthropology. These enable people to gain confidence and develop an interest in study. The group in Killester feels that, although many people feel that third-level study is way beyond them, they have proved that this is not so.

C.U.P. is now in its fourth year and feels the need for some recognition for all their hard work. They have submitted a proposal for a Part-Time Degree in Sociology. They have been told that U.C.D. is not in a position yet to break with tradition and facilitate them at degree level.

However, a Diploma in Sociology with credits towards a degree has been suggested. Discussions on this option are in progress at present.

Under the National Distance Education Council (NDEC) 2,000 adult students are enrolled at present on technology courses. According to the Department of Education ‘this is a flexible mode of learning ideally suited to adults in so far as they can do most of the work in their own homes at their own pace. There is flexibility on entrance requirements and fees are relatively low.

A recent agreement with the Open University in the UK opens the way for a substantial increase in the number and variety of courses available.

General observations: The negative findings of the research carried out by Aontas should be considered in the context of (a) the Department of Education data provided in Table 46 and (b) the limitations of the instrument used (postal questionnaire)

The information in this section and in 8.2 above suggests that Adult Education provision has been increasing (albeit from a low base line) in recent years. The commitment to the disadvantaged in the Programme for Economic and Social Progress should ensure that this growth is sustained. An Aontas spokesperson said in April 1991 that ’the situation is more optimistic now. Things were generally at their lowest ebb in 1988 but even then the growth in women’s group was not arrested’.

8.5 THE EXPERIENCE OF THE COMBAT POVERTY AGENCY: AN EXAMPLE OF ADULT EDUCATION PROVISION FOR WOMEN

8.5.1 Introduction

In her introduction to the Combat Proverty report referred to above the Head of Research at the Agency states

“Its main message is that this is one area where relatively small amounts of money make a lot of difference. Clearly, the 18 programmes, run for approximately £40,000, engaged in a diverse and striking range of educational activities that have been shown to be very valuable in their own right. There are a number of levels at which these programmes are valuable. First, for the individuals who participated in them, they were part of a process of personal growth and development. As well as providing a social outlet, they help to overcome the feelings of isolation and powerlessness that frequently assail women rearing children on low incomes. Secondly, there are direct, if more long-term, spin-offs for participants’ families in that they help participants to understand and cope with the terrible pressures of surviving on very low incomes. Thirdly, these programmes are valuable because they make a vital contribution to the process of local community development”.

The report illustrates how these women’s programmes differ from conventional educational programmes. A consideration of the aspects which worked well underlines their uniqueness:

*a high involvement of participants in decisions concerning the running of the programmes appears to enhance their chances of success;

*the relevance of the courses to womens’ personal and family interests is also important;

*participative learning sessions and creative methods also appear to be of vital importance;

*the provision of a creche facility and a time schedule that accommodates participants’ family responsibilities are vital.

The work of the Agency is described below (8.5.2. - 8.5.5.) This section is heavily dependent on the aforementioned report of the Combat Poverty Agency.

8.5.2 The Extent of the Activity

The Agency provided funding for 18 local women’s projects in 1987 of which 14 were based in Dublin, 2 in Waterford, 1 in Cork and 1 in Bray. The Agency became involved because it saw these projects⁽¹¹¹⁾ ’as an attempt to tackle the effects and consequences of poverty among women at a local level and this is of central relevance to the work and goals of the Agency. For the Agency the relationship between women and poverty is a priority issue… The lack of other sources of funding, apart from the once-off grants allocated by the Agency (discontinued sinced 1987 due to cut-backs in the Agency’s budget) was also clear… many of the programmes would not have taken place without the Agency’s support’.

Nine of the eighteen Projects were new; the others had been in existence for a number of years. Of the programmes that had been completed at the time of the research for McVeigh’s Report, 145 women had started on them and in all only 17 had dropped out. Participants’ commitment to the programme was rated as very high/high: ’As evidence of this, they pointed to the high level of regular attendance and the enthusiasm and energy that the women gave to participating in the individual sessions’.

A total of 355 women took part in the 18 programmes: the average number of participants in programmes was 19. Married women comprised the majority, the remainder being lone parents who were either single, separated, widowed, deserted or wives of prisoners. The majority of participants were in the 25-35 age group.

The majority of participants had left school early and had a low level of formal educational attainment. A number had obtained the Group or IntermediateCertificate and a few had their Leaving Cert. Some had attended Adult Education classes as part of previous group activities.

Personal development was the major aim for each programme. The other aims included:

In some cases changes were made during the programme to the content and objectives in response to felt needs.

Programmes ran for between 6 and 20 weeks, the average being 10 weeks. A weekly morning or evening session lasting for about 2 hours was usual. The programme content was an outcome in many cases of a consultative process between the participants and co-ordinators. The learning sessions had as a central theme participation and learning through experience, in contrast to having a very structured or formal format. Creating the ‘right’ atmosphere which would give space for women to relax, be themselves, feel comfortable, and safe was the initialresponsibility of the co-ordinators. As time went on, most groups took on this responsibility for themselves. All programmes were supported by either an Advisory/Management Committees or a professional worker. A wide range of other support organisations was available to some of the programmes.

The availability of a creche was seen as integral to the programmes. In most cases, the provision of a child minding facility was part of the initial proposal, underlining an awareness of how essential this service is if women are to be encouraged to become involved in ‘out of home’ activities. Without a creche facility, many women would be unable to participate in or follow up interests they may have.

There can be few comparisons drawn between groups on funding since the grants allocated to groups varied between £450 and £6,000. In all, the total funding allocated to the 18 groups was over £40,000. Only 4 groups received the full amount sought. Most groups felt that funding was adequate and, in the main, groups appeared to have been relieved to receive financial support at all. One group stated that having one’s own funds created an air of independence - something they had never experienced in the past. Only 3 groups voiced dissatisfaction with the size of their grant allocation. In the main groups worked within their allocation since funding from other sources was very scarce.

8.5.3 Programme Outcomes

With regard to outcomes the report states: ‘The fact that the women attended on such a regular basis, organising themselves to get to a meeting and participating to the high level that they did, were reported as important achievements. That programmes were initiated and completed was seen by 4 groups as an achievement in itself. All groups but 2 believed that their aims and objectives had been met. The 2 groups for whom it was too early to identify achievements felt confident that major progress would be made.

The main achievement acknowledged by all the groups was the personal growth of individuals. The extent of personal growth, though not objectively measured, was reportedly large. As evidence of this, groups cited the fact that participants’ self esteem had increased. Sometimes, the growth of confidence and assertiveness that took place appeared to have surpassed the participants’ own expectations. The achievements were listed by the groups under the general headings of benefits for the individual, the group and the wider community.

Even though the content of the programmes varied, participants on each programme were able to identify benefits. There were many common benefits. These were mainly in the area of personal development, centring onrediscovering the worth of themselves and their skills and opening up new horizons. Examples of this include:

Two of the main areas highlighted of a personal development nature were the increased self-confidence and recognition of the importance of taking time for oneself without the accompanying guilt. Often, gaining access to information and education is key since information is in many cases the privilege of the few. Consequently, acquiring information on topics such as Social Welfare Rights reportedly gave the participants a feeling of empowerment, allowing them to take more control and feel less intimidated by official and even unofficial structures.

In addition, often, being part of an educational process dispelled the notion that learning stops once you leave school. Furthermore, the topics covered gave the women the chance to explore new areas of interest and revitalise old ones.

At the group level, the main identified benefits related to social factors such as creating bonding trust and friendship among participants as well as greater understanding of the needs and difficulties of others. At the community level, the programmes reportedly facilitated an identification with the local area and led to involvement in local other activities.

8.5.4. Drawbacks

All but 4 groups identified some drawbacks. In general, programme content was not a source of criticism. The main complaint voiced by participants was that programmes were too short and did not allow enough time or space to cover topics as fully as was sometimes desired.

The co-ordinators voiced a number of drawbacks, mainly in relation to the organisation of the programme finances, lack of time, unsuitability of premises, inability to cope with the numbers applying, maximising the value of outside speakers, some lack of sensitivity to the fears of participants in the initial stages.

All of the evidence obtained indicated that the programmes have had a substantial personal impact on those who participated. In addition, it was a widespread belief that the programmes would have spin-offs not only for the participants and the communities in which they live in the short-term but also that they might in time have a significant impact on the overall effects of poverty on women’s lives.

Consequently, the continuation and development of their programmes was an aim for all 18 groups. However, having the necessary funding and supports to do this was a major concern. All of the 18 programmes stressed the need for funding to be continued.

It is important to emphasise the necessity of providing a creche facility as an integral part of programmes initiated for women. Funding for such programmes should include allocations for the running of a creche.

A useful recommendation made by some groups was for the establishment of an Information and Resource Bank which would offer ideas and names of possible resource people to enhance the programme and enable a greater choice of content, structures and speakers”.

8.5.6 Future Plans

The Combat Poverty Agency has announced the following details regarding Grants for Community Education and Training for 1989.⁽¹¹³⁾

“The Combat Poverty Agency has established a special fund of £60,000 from which a limited number of grants will be made available to community based groups undertaking an education or training programme. Grants will not normally exceed £2,000 and will be given to groups working on developing strategies aimed at tackling the underlying casuses of poverty. In particular the Agency wishes to fund education work which will help to decrease dependence and empower people affected by poverty; will give people more control over their lives; will foster community involvement and participation; will help those living in poverty to have equal access to the resources and services that the rest of society benefits from; and will improve the economic, physical and cultural environment in which they live”.

8.5.7 Present position regarding Community Projects

The Minister for Social Welfare, Dr Woods, announced on September 19th, 1990⁽¹¹⁴⁾ that almost 200 community projects run by women were to receive grants from the Department of Social Welfare. A total of £350,000 was distributed to locally based women’s groups engaged in work similar to that outlined at 8.5 above. Over 300 women’s groups applied for a total of almost £2 million under the scheme and more than 6,000 women benefited directly from the activities funded. Groups were allocated grants of between £160 and £10,000, most in the region of £1,000, with the biggest share of available funds going to the Eastern Health Board Region. Rural groups were, it would appear, under represented among the groups receiving support. While the initiative was greatly welcomed there was dissatisfaction that (i) the scheme was a once off effort (ii) the money had to be spent by 31 December 1990. An additional £100,000 was made available in December 1990 to Community Projects run by women

8.6 CHILD MINDING FACILITIES

The vital importance of such facilities if parents are to benefit from adult education provision has been has been highlighted above. The Joint Committee Report (1984) placed great emphasis on the importance of providing such facilities and it felt strongly that the government should insist that the recommendation of the Report of the Commission on the Status of Women (1972) that ‘where new housing schemes are being erected provision should be made for the building of creches or day nurseries in the schemes and we recommend that provision of facilities of this nature should be a condition for the grant of planning permission for such schemes’ should be implemented in full in all new housing schemes under the control of private and local authority interests.

The current situation is described as follows in the recent Co-ordinated Report on The Development of Equal Opportunities, March 1987 - September 1988:

‘8.4 Local Authorities have powers under the Housing Acts to provide facilities such as creches or day nurseries in connection with their own houses. Dublin Corporation, for example, have made available units of accommodation for such activity and it is left to the tenants and mothers to organise these units. However the child care area is primarily the responsibility of Health Boards and the Department of Health. Having regard to the limited capital available for housing, the normal provision in schemes only comprises the amenity type facilities outlined earlier’.

This list of amenities is included in a memorandum issued by the Department of the Environment to all local authorities in 1982, setting out the standards they must comply with in the planning and construction of all housing schemes provided by them:

“These standards draw the attention of local authorities to the need to have proper and adequate facilities, such as roads, footpaths, public lighting, open spaces, landscaping and other services within the boundaries of new local authority estates… Road traffic safety and off-street car parking are also dealt with in the memorandum. The authorities are also asked to have regard to the need to have shops, schools, health services, churches, public transport facilities etc. within reasonable distances of all housing schemes provided by them”.

This issue of creche provision in new housing schemes should be viewed in the overall context of greatly reduced activity in the provision of new local authority houses - it was planned to provide 1,000-1,300 such houses in the whole country in 1989.

8.7 MATURE STUDENTS

8.7.1 Examination Fees

‘Abolition of the £30 fee for mature students taking the Leaving Certificate Examination and a reduction in fees for continuing education’

There is some good news to report on this issue. In the case of a person taking Leaving Certificate for the first time the fees are now as follows:

In the case of those who have already done Leaving Certificate and wish to repeat the Examination fees are (1990/91):

—1 subject £36

—1 subjects £72

—3 subjects or more £100

On the other hand the Department of Education has introduced a fee for those who wish to repeat the Leaving Certificate course as full-time students.

8.7.2 Third Level Grants

The Programme for Economic and Social Progress contains the following initiatives in relation to mature students:

‘The Higher Education Grants Scheme will be re-examined in the context particularly of (i) increasing the income eligibility limits for families with more than one child attending third-level, (ii) assessing income eligibility of mature students who are not dependent on their parents, on the basis of their own and, if married, that of their spouses’ incomes (iii) regarding mature students who secure a place in a third-level institution as satisfying the academic requirements and (iv) the development of more equitable income assessment criteria for all applicants.

‘An allocation of third-level places would be made for mature students from disadvantaged areas as an extension of the existing provision for mature students together with support or access programmes where necessary. In addition, the targetting of places for the disadvantaged would be further strengthened through linkages between specific second-level schools and third-level institutions, the appointment and designation of an appropriate member of the staff of the institution to oversee the linkages, the joint monitoring of performances of the pupils particularly during the senior cycle and consideration of initiatives from other institutions such as the National College of Industrial Relations’.

A scheme whereby grants are made available to mature women third level students was established by the Minister of State for Women’s Affairs in 1984. This scheme is designed to provide financial assistance in the form of a grant to unwaged women students over twenty five years of age who are taking an approved undergraduate degree, diploma or certificate course. The Scheme was organised in 1985 and has continued each year since. Most of the successful applicants have been married women with children. Courses pursued by successful applicants ranged from Sociology and Arts to Civil Engineering, Computer Studies and Environmental Sciences. The amount of money allocated to this scheme is now £20,000, enabling the allocation of £1,000 to each of 20 women. One of the conditions is that they must have successfully completed 1 year of study: this is giving rise to some dissatisfaction on the part of women who can’t afford to wait that long.

8.8 EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING

The Report of the Commission on Adult Education, Lifelong Learning, 1983, stated that the Government should implement without delay the recommendations of the Report on Educational Broadcasting that affect adult education and this necessitates the provision of the appropriate funds for educational purposes to R.T.E.

The report further recommends the amendment of existing copyright laws to facilitate the fullest possible exploitation by educational institutions and public libraries of distance learning and educational broadcasting.

The history of the establishment and disestablishment of a schools broadcasting service in this country is well known. Lack of finance for a educational broadcasting is the fundamental issue. The Head of Educational Programmes at R.T.E., interviewed by the author in November 1988, summed up the problems faced by the national station when she said ’R.T.E. can’t run faster than the Department of Education’ At present RTE does provide a number of non-formal education programmes e.g. Monday at Nine, The Open Mind, Education Forum, language programmes. The station has produced a number of programmes dealing with womens’ issues: New Waves; Women and the Law; A World of Difference; Women and Poverty (Broadcast in February, 1989) while the Women’s Programme on RTE television dealt explicitly with womens’ issues for a number of years.

The Head of Educational Programmes responded to the Committee’s comments on the quality of morning programmes by saying that ‘You can’t just take off Gay Byrne and put on educational programmes. What you need is a dedicated fourth FM channel and this would require considerable financial support, possibly in the form of sponsorship from appropriate partners. The Committee’s recommendation is a bold one. There must be a follow up strategy to put it into effect with the assurance of continuity’.

She stressed that incidental learning takes place in relation to many of the existing programmes and she also referred to the possibilities presented by Distance Education for N.C.E.A. validated courses. Some joint initiatives of this nature between RTE and Maynooth College have been successfully piloted. A group of women have come together to campaign for a University Outreach in Ireland.

AONTAS has been critical of the Radio and Television Act (1988) because of its failure to make adequate provision for educational broadcasting and they have issued the following press release on the matter:

New local and community radio stations will begin broadcasting next year. AONTAS, the National Association of Adult Education has called on the Broadcasting Commission to ensure that programmes will be provided to meet people’s educational needs and interests. Radio stations will offer a whole range of new possibilities for education type programmes, says AONTAS. It is important that we take this opportunity of bringing a new brand of education to people and of helping to develop our social and cultural life. We must try to avoid the same diet of muszak and newszak being broadcast in different parts of the country.

The new radio stations will have the chance to provide a fresh, creative approach to local learning and community education. People will be able to learn about their health, their rights, their relationships, their families, their homes and the local environment in which they live. The high level of participation in adult education courses suggest that there would be a high demand for such programmes. The challenge, according to AONTAS, is for the new radio stations to produce programmes which will entice people to listen and learn.

AONTAS is disappointed that the new Broadcasting Act makes no requirements on those who get licenses to provide educational type programmes. Despite repeated requests from AONTAS, the Minister for Communications, Ray Burke, T.D., refused to insert any clause in the act referring to the necessity for some kind of education programmes.

One of the problems is that many of the new broadcasters may see education programmes as a turn-off. ‘But’, says Dr. Tom Inglis, Director of AONTAS, ‘given a topical and interesting issue, a lively attractive format, a good presentation and the chance for people to follow through on what they have learnt, educational type programmes can attract a very good audience.’

There have been some very good education programmes produced by RTE over the years. Good quality education programmes would for example, provide an opportunity for people to learn in a systematic way about some of the basic problems and issues of their lives. Innovative educational programmes can provide a major opportunity to create a new understanding and imagination in Ireland and to animate social, political and cultural life.

Although it has very limited resources, AONTAS will do all that it can to help produce such programmes.

In the absence of specific legislative requirements AONTAS calls on the new broadcasting commission to ensure that those organisations and groups granted licenses are made aware of their responsibility to respond to the educational needs of people to whom they will broadcast and that, consequently, they should provide clear plans of what type of educational programmes they intend to make available’.

On examining the Act one finds that no conditions are laid down regarding the provision of educational broadcasting whereas a basic minimum of time must devoted to news and current affairs.

AONTAS is also quite critical of the timing of existing adult education programmes on RTE radio. The proportion of time devoted to education by RTE between 1985-87 is given in Table 50.

9. POSITION OF WOMEN TEACHERS

9.1 DISTRIBUTION of POSTS of RESPONSIBILITY by GENDER

9.1.1. Primary Schools

The recently launched INTO pamphlet Will you apply for a Principalship ? aimed at encouraging more women to apply for principalships, draws attention to the following facts:⁽¹¹⁵⁾

*DISPROPORTIONATE REPRESENTATION Three out of every four teachers are women. Four out of every ten men are principals, while only one out of every ten women are principals.

*PAST DISCRIMINATION Between 1932 and 1958 women teachers had to retire on marriage. Until 1975 women could not be principals of mixed schools of over 80 pupils.

*SLOW TO CHANGE In 1988 62 men and 50 women were appointed to Principalships. 754 men and 668 women applied for these posts.

*CONDITIONING In response to a questionnaire on promotion, 1 out of every 2 men stated that they intended to apply for a principalship while only 1 in 6 women stated that they had that intention.

*RANGE OF EXPERIENCE COUNTS Experience in teaching the five senior classes in primary school is an important factor in promotion. In the past the opportunities for women to teach senior classes were frequently limited.

*LONGER SERVICE FOR WOMEN The average period between qualification as a teacher and first appointment as a principal is nine and a half years for women, while it is only five for men.

The proportions of males/females as derived from the above Table are as follows:

*Some 41% of male primary teachers are principals as against 12% of female teachers (39% of males and 8% of females were principals in 1981).

*While more than three out of four teachers are women more than half of the principals in primary schools are male.

A closer examination of the appointments since 1983 helps to illuminate the problem.

TABLE 52 : Primary School Principalship : Applications and Appointments (1983-89)

The above Table suggests that there has been an equitable relationship between the proportion of women applying and being appointed during the period in question. The problem has been that the numbers of male and female applications have been disproportionate in relation to the numbers of male and female class teachers e.g. during the calendar year 1987, 59% of all applicants were male while males constituted 24% of class teachers. Table 50 tells a very interesting story; it shows that there has been a steady and significant increase in the proportion of female applicants and that women applicants outnumbered men for the first time during the period July-December 1989 - this was reflected in the appointments for that period.

The data in Table 51 reminds us of the phenomenon referred to as the ‘feminisation of the teaching profession’. Whereas 25.8% of all Primary teachers were male in 1981-82 the proportion of males had dropped to 24% in 1988-89. Of the 16,284 primary teachers who were not principals as of August 1990, 13,439 (82.5%) were women. The data in Table 52 should be viewed in this context.

The message is that women have not been applying for principalships in proportion to their numbers. This is clearly recognised by the INTO and that Union is now actively campaigning on this issue. It recently launched the aforementioned pamphlet entitled Will you Consider Applying for a Principalship ? The President of the INTO made the following points at the launch:

“In pursuance of the organisation’s policy to promote gender equality in the education service, the Central Executive committee has circulated the pamphlet to every member of the INTO. Its aim is to encourage more women to apply for posts as principals in primary schools. The INTO research Gender Inequalities in Primary School Teaching showed that while one in every two men intended to apply for a principalship in the future only one in every six women intended to apply.

In 1985 the INTO negotiated new interview procedures for the appointment of teachers designed to prevent discrimination. However, the attitudes of individuals and groups still form a subtle barrier to promotion in primary teaching. Many people still see the role of principal as a man’s job. In fact more than half of all principalships are held by men, while three out of every four teachers are women. Both men and women teachers perceive that women, and especially women with young children, are at a disadvantage when applying for a principalship.

Childcare is also presumed to be solely a woman’s responsibility, rather than a shared responsibility.

The phrase ’sure you would need a man for the older lads’ is still alive in the minds of many people, members of Boards of Management, parents and indeed many teachers”.

The General Secretary of the Union remarked on the ‘hidden curriculum’ aspects of the present situation at the launch:

“It is fully and widely recognised that children learn as much about life from what they see around them as from what they are told. It is in this context that we have to ask ourselves what is the impact on 500 children in a primary school with 15 teachers, 14 of whom are women and the one man on the staff is also principal of the school. It would take a lot of hard work on the part of teachers to redress the formative impact of that reality on children’s aspirations for their own future”.

“Within our union we have commenced a study on participation of men and women in the INTO which will involve external research and a study of the Rules and Constitution and structures of the INTO all with the objective of encouraging genuine equality between men and women in society”.

The gender imbalance isn’t confined to the classroom. Within the primary school Inspectorate, recruited from among teachers, only 7 out of 74 inspectors are women and they are at the lower grade, that of District Inspector. (See Table 58 below). A recent article in The Irish Times stated:

“Within the INTO, the primary teachers’ trade union, the situation is hardly better. While there is a good representation at local level - 70% of school representatives are women - at national level there is severe under-representation”.⁽¹¹⁶⁾

9.2 POST PRIMARY SCHOOLS

9.2.1 The actual position

TABLE 53 : Gender of post holders in Secondary and Community/Comprehensive schools (July ’90/January ’89)

There are 1.1 lay females for every lay male in the above schools i.e. 52.4% of lay teachers are female. The overall situation with regard to posts of responsibility in secondary, community and comprehensive schools combined is as follows:

There are 1.2 lay males for every lay female teaching in Community/Comprehensive schools i.e. 45% of lay teachers are female. The situation with regard to posts of responsibility is:

There are 1.2 lay female teachers for every lay male teacher in the secondary sector i.e. 54% of lay teachers are female.

The information in relation to secondary schools should be seen in context that, according to the Department’s published statistics for 1988-89, there were

It is also important, when considering the position in secondary schools, to remember that posts other than that of principal are allocated on the basis of seniority in such schools. This may account for the disproportion emerging above between the secondary and the Community/Comprehensive sector.

The ASTI⁽¹¹⁷⁾ survey on Women Teachers and Promotion (March 1991) draws attention to a number of relevant points:

*In general the men in their sample (both teachers and principles) tended to be older (66% of women as against 45% of men in the sample were under 40 years of age). It is suggested that the ‘marriage ban’ that existed for some reason may be part of the reason

*Male principals and male teachers were more likely to be married than their female counterparts. It is suggested that the differences are in some instances greater than might be explained by the age difference referred to above.

*While 63% of the female principals in the sample were in all female schools, only 36% of the male principals were in all male schools. There would seem to be a greater reluctance on the part of boys’ schools to employ female teachers than is the case for girls’ schools to employ male teachers.

*Between 1986 and 1988 men were nearly three times more likely to get permanent teaching jobs than women (based on H.E.A. surveys on the destination of recipients of the Higher Diploma in Education).

While females constituted the great majority of graduates in education in 1987, 20% of male graduates in both the primary and second level sectors got permanent jobs in Ireland compared with 9% of female graduates. More women than men gained part-time or temporary jobs at both levels. (Higher Education Authority, 1988, Tables C and 4.1)

General Comment

Women in general and lay women especially are not proportionately represented in posts of responsibility in these schools. The most obvious anomalies occur at principal level in both the secondary and community/comprehensive sectors. The same holds true in the case of vocational schools as can be seen from Table 54 below. According to the Department of Education ’The under representation of women in posts of responsibility is common to most OECD countries’.

9.2.2 T.U.I Survey

The Teachers’ Union of Ireland commissioned a survey of their members in 1986. The report is entitled Survey of Equality of Opportunity in Teaching.⁽¹¹⁸⁾ The research was carried out by the IMS and all TUI members in Vocational, Community and Comprehensive schools constituted the population sampled. The gender break-down of teachers in these schools is set down below in Table 54.

TABLE 54 : Gender of teachers in Vocational, Community and Comprehensive schools

The ratio of males holding posts of responsibility is clearly disproportionate - with the exception of B Posts.

The respondents were questioned about their experiences with applications for posts.

TABLE 56 : Outcomes of applications submitted for posts by Respondents to TUI Survey:

The T.U.I. Education Officer provided me with the information presented in Table 55 below for the school year 1985/86: this provides a breakdown of positions held in Vocational schools by gender. While the information is somewhat dated it is the most up todate available. Such information is very hard to get because it is available only through individual V.E.C.s - it is not available from the Department.

9.2.3 Appointment of Lay Principals to Voluntary Secondary Schools

The details of such appointments during the period 1986 - June 1990 are set out below.

TABLE 59 : Applications for Lay Principalships in Secondary Schools by Gender

The above Table presents research conducted by the J.M.B. at the request of the author in March 1989. The same pattern emerges as in the case of Primary Schools. Of 171 applicants for 17 schools just 5% were female. The Table indicates clearly that males are much more likely to apply for a principalship e.g. 13 men applied per boys’ school while only 2 women applied per girls’ school. In the case of a recent appointment in a girls’ school in the Mid West only 7 of the 28 candidates were women (a woman was appointed)

Tables 58 and 59 must be seen in the context that 55% of secondary school teachers are women.

9.2.4 ASTI Research

The ASTI research⁽¹¹⁹⁾ found that there are important differences in the motivation that men and women bring to teaching. Women are more likely to be motivated by factors that are intrinsic to classroom teaching, while men are more career oriented. Men were more likely than women to consider salary, hours and conditions, and security as important while working with young people and academic interest (particularly) were more important for women than for men. The same pattern of gender differences emerged in relation to the principals sampled.

When teachers were questioned about their career goals the following gender differences emerged:

*Men were almost two and a half times as likely as women to want to be principal.

*Over 29% of women expected to remain as either classroom teachers or as classroom teachers with additional unpaid responsibility. In contrast just over 11% of men had such career expectations.

*Women were more likely than men to indicate that they would seek a career break and job sharing.

The teacher respondents were asked if they had ever applied for a promotional position (B post, A post, Vice-Principal or Principal). The researchers found that

‘there were no differences in relation to the percentages of men and women who had applied for a B-post; just over half of the women and an equal percentage of men had applied for such a position. There was a relatively small difference in the percentage of women and men who applied for an A post (18 vs 29 per cent). However, there were major differences with regard to the percentages applying for vice-principalships and principalships. While nearly 23 per cent of men had applied for the position of vice-principal at some time, only 8 per cent of the women had made such an application. Even more striking was the difference in relation to application for the position of principal. While nearly 16 per cent of the men had applied for such a position, less than 5 per cent of the women had done so. Interestingly, there was no major difference in the pattern of results for Community schools and Voluntary secondary schools, despite the differences in procedures for promotion that exist’ (my italics).

The report identified a number of factors which discourage women from applying for promotion:

*28% of women as against 18% of men said that they would be discouraged or strongly discouraged by family responsibilities.

*The absence of child care facilities was regarded as an issue by a significant proportion of female teachers and principals.

*Women were more likely than men to be discouraged by the attitudes of management regarding gender roles.

*Over 35% of men as against 25% of women were strongly encouraged by ’having the confidence’ to do the job while 10% of the women as against 4% of men were discouraged on this account.

*15% of women as against 7% of males were discouraged by the fact that a promotional position involves less teaching.

*36% of women were discouraged by the prospect of additional administrative work while women were less likely to be encouraged by the increased responsibility of a post.

Teachers were asked to indicate how helpful various factors should be andactually were in obtaining promotion. They found that

’Nearly half of the overall sample thought that being female should be helpful in securing a promotional position, but only 18 per cent thought that in reality this was true. Conversely, just over half of the teachers thought that being male should be a helpful factor but in reality over 86 per cent said that it was. This is a really remarkable pattern of perceptions. While there was agreement in the overall sample that gender should not be important in selection procedures, the difference between numbers thinking that males as opposed to females have an advantage (86 vs 18) is very substantial and indicates a very widespread perception of gender bias’.

77% of both men and women thought that being male was, in reality, helpful in securing promotion while 17% of both men and women thought that being female was helpful. Over 80% of the principles thought that being male was important in reality in obtaining a principalship while only 20% thought that being female was important in reality. These perceptions were exactly the same for both men and women.

’In other words, the belief that gender should not make a difference in securing an appointment but that in reality it was an important factor was held equally by men and women principals’.

Men were more likely than women to consider being married and having children as helpful for promotion; significantly higher proportions of males found that being married and having children were, in reality advantageous in obtaining a promotional post.

The responses indicated that there was no difference in the reactions of staff to the gender of newly appointed principals while the principals themselves reported no gender specific problems in their dealings with male and female staff.

9.3 THE INSPECTORATE

This gender imbalance in management/administration is also reflected in the Inspectorate.

27 (15.5%) of the members of the Inspectorate are female. With one exception they are at the lowest level i.e. Recruitment level.

The 1984 Report of the Committee referred to the importance of adequate representation of women on VEC’s. The I.V.E.A. was asked information regarding the gender of V.E.C. members.

“The information requested by you is available from individual VEC’s only, as far as I know”.

9.4 POSITION OF WOMEN AT THIRD LEVEL

The information in this section is based on the Higher Education Authority’s Report published in June 1987.⁽¹²¹⁾

1.As can be seen from Table 59 below there had been a 38% increase in overall numbers of academic staff in the University sector between 1970/71 and 1984/5 - with a greater proportional increase for women. Not surprisingly, the growth rate in the designated institutions (NIHEs, National College of Art and Design, Thomond College of Education) was much greater - 156% - and the proportional increase in the number of women academics was quite high.

TABLE 61 : Academic staff in Universities and Designated Institutions by gender

The parallel increase in the numbers of female students in the universities since 1970/71 was 93% and, in the case of the designated institutions, 210%. The Report finds therefore that:⁽¹²²⁾

’The proportion which female academics form of total full-time staff (15%) is low compared to the percentage that women comprise of full-time third-level students at both undergraduate and postgraduate degree level (46% and 37% respectively in 1983/84)’.

’that women academics in the universities and designated institutions are poorly represented in the senior lecturing grades. Representation of women in these grades has not increased significantly over the period. It has declined in the universities; in 1970/71, 10 full Professors were women; in 1984/85, this number was 5. In the designated institutions there were no women appointed at the grade of Principal Lecturer. However, the representation of women in the junior and intermediate lecturing grades has increased, and they now account for over a third of Assistant Lecturers in the universities and 30% of this grade in the designated institutions. It should be noted that for all Professorships outside competition is important, while for senior lectureships, internal promotion seems to be predominant. Given that women have done badly in the former and comparatively well in the latter, this would appear to indicate a problem related to mobility’.

(1)This includes Statutory Lecturer (UCD), Lecturer (UCC and UCG), and Senior Lecturer (TCD and Maynooth).

(2)Includes College Lecturer (UCD and UCC), Junior Lecturer (UCG), Lecturer (TCD and Maynooth).

(3)The grade Principal Lecturer is roughly equivalent to Professor/Associate Professor in the universities, with Lecturer being equivalent to College Lecturer.

*Female academics are concentrated in the faculties of Arts and Social Science in the Universities - over half of all female academics were found there; the same pattern is found in the designated institutions where 55% of females were involved in teaching Humanities. These areas have not expanded in recent years.

*While data regarding applications for academic positions was difficult to compare, ’It appears that significantly lower numbers of females than male apply for vacancies at each level; however, of those who applied, a higher proportion of females than males were successful in most grades’.

*While the average age of female academics is generally lower than that of men, the women in senior positions tended to be significantly older than males and there is a concentration of women in the junior lecturing grades.

*The proportions of female part-time staff are significantly higher than the corresponding ones for full-time staff.

*The median income for females teaching at third level was £16,000 while for males it was £19,000. While over a quarter of male academics earn £21,000 or more, only a tenth of female academics earn as much.

*’Factors which appear to the Committee to be significant include the fact that the number of women registered for postgraduate degrees is still lower than the number of men. Also, women comprised only one third of total numbers who go abroad to study after graduation, which is important for academic career development. The tendencies for women to be less highly qualified than men and to have produced fewer publications must be taken into account in consideration of this issue. The lower numbers of women applying for vacancies at each level were noted by the Committee’.

10 INTERVIEW BOARDS

10.1 PRIMARY SCHOOLS

Since January 1985 the regulations governing the constitution of Selection Boards have been as follows.

For the position of principal: Chairperson of the Board of Management and at least two independent assessors (one male, one female) appointed by the Patron. For the position of Assistant Teacher: Chairperson of the Board of Management, the school principal and one nominee of the Patron (one male, one female).

The Department of Education has published a Handbook in relation to the appointment of a primary school teachers and principals. The guidelines specify that candidates are not to be asked discriminatory questions including questions related to gender/marital status. The Selection Committee members must justify the appointment by setting out criteria and awarding marks. The INTO Equality Officer feels that the procedures are watertight but she was ’critical of the Department of Education’s failure to monitor the implementation of the Rules. For example, it is the INTO and not the Department of Education which monitors the ads to ensure that they comply with the Rules. The INTO believes that the responsibility for ensuring that the Rules are implemented lies with the Department’.

’the Boards are there to manage and the Department’s role is not to be a watch dog but to correct errors when they are made’.

*A stay of appointment to enable a woman who feels that she has been discriminated against time to appeal;

*The extension of the regulations to cover the appointment of temporary teachers.

*The introduction of a regulation that all members of Selection Boards must have attended a professional training course which includes a module on gender equity;

*The issuing of a checklist by the Department setting out the procedures to be followed in relation to appointment;

*The establishment of an agreed procedure between the Department, management and the INTO for assessing and processing complaints relating to an appointment.

*The need for an undertaking by the Department to check - on a random basis - the records of interviews which the Selection Boards are required to maintain and their selection criteria i.e. a monitoring procedure.

The view of the Department of Education is that the handbook is perfectly adequate.

The INTO’s Equality Officer says that there continues to be difficulty with the attitudes of Selection Boards and feels that a prejudice against the appointment of women principals remains in some cases. She does, however, feel that the situation has improved.

Speaking at the launch of his Unions’ pamphlet “Will you apply for a Principalship” the General Secretary of the INTO said that his Union was seeking:

3.Professional criteria for selection and special training for selection boards and inservice training in administration for teachers.

10.2 SECOND LEVEL SCHOOLS

10.2.1 Constitution of Selection Boards

There are no stipulations regarding the gender of Selection Board members in the case of second level appointments in any of the three sectors. The situation at vocational school level seems to vary somewhat between VECs. In the case of secondary schools the Board for the selection of a principal is constituted as follows:

In the case of the Community/Comprehensive Sector the only requirement is that the Board must consist of five persons: 2 representatives of the religious; 1 representative of the V.E.C; the CEO or his/her nominee; a representative of the Department of Education.

Information regarding the gender of members of actual Selection Boards has proved difficult to get.

There are no gender stipulations either regarding the constitution of the Boards of Management of either Community/Comprehensive schools or secondary schools (although, in the latter case, ’they do try to have a woman, especially if it’s a co-ed or girls’ school’).

The findings of the recent TUI study: ’Survey of Equality of Opportunity in Teaching’ (see 9.1.2.2. above) in relation to interviews conducted during the period 1980-86 were:

*2/3 of those who had an interview during this period had gone before a board made up of 5-7 people.

*Over 9/10 of respondents described the composition of the board as predominantly male.

*In just one case in three was there a woman present on the Interview Board which normally included: the C.E.O., (a) member(s) of the V.E.C., a Department of Education Inspector, the school principal.

10.2.2 Conduct of interviews

The Department of Education has issued the Code of Practice of the Employment Equality Agency to the management bodies of all post primary schools.⁽¹²⁴⁾ The TUI Equality Officer feels that this has not made much of an impact. That Union has reached agreement with the Irish Vocational Education Association regarding a code of practice and is now involved in the negotiation of this code with individual VECs. Advertisements for posts in VEC schools now state that the VEC’s are Equal Opportunity Employers.

In the recent T.U.I. study ’Survey of Educational Opportunity in Teaching’ respondents were asked were asked how comfortable they felt at interview on a scale of 0-10 (high). The mean score was 7.9 while the mean female score was 7. Married women reported the lowest comfort score with an average of 6.8. Women respondents felt they had been asked questions related to their gender in three areas: classroom discipline; marital status; children at home and 22% of women felt that these questions were discriminatory.

In the ASTI survey on equality⁽¹²⁵⁾ teachers were asked about the adequency of the appointments procedures for appointments at all levels within the profession. While there is more satisfaction with the procedures in relation to junior posts than senior posts few gender differences were found. There was however ’a slight tendency for women to be less satisfied with procedures for appointment to unpaid positions of responsibility and to principalships’. While the satisfaction levels of male and female principals with individual aspects of the interview procedures were high, a higher percentage of men gave a satisfactory rating on each of the six aspects of appointment procedures identified in the questionnaire.

Respondents to the survey were invited to indicate whether they thought that certain interventions would encourage fairness in competitions for promotions. The five interventions proposed were:

There was almost complete agreement about the worthwhileness of four of the five proposed interventions while there was less agreement on the question of confining interview subject matter to professional experience and qualifications there was strong support for this proposal also.

Gender differences did emerge in the strength of respondents’ endorsements of the various interventions e.g. 82% of women thought that the idea of ’having a balance of men and women on selection committees’ was highly desirable while the corresponding percentage for men was 52. Differences in the same direction were found for the remaining items. No major differences were found between teachers in voluntary secondary schools and those in the Community/Comprehensive sector in relation to these interventions.

The ASTI has reached agreement on Equality with the Joint Managerial Body using as a basis the Employment Equality Agency’s code. It is intended to send the agreement to Boards of management and invite their responses. The agreement stipulates that job application forms should not contain questions about marital status, number of children or other personal matters. It also requires that the records of interview committees should be kept to ensure adherence to equality legislation and that all advertisements for teaching posts must stipulate that the school is an Equal Opportunities Employer.

The ASTI has also reached agreement with the Association of Community and Comprehensive Schools (ACS) regarding Application Forms and it has reached agreement with some VECs regarding appointment procedures to Community Colleges, and is in negotiation with the ACS on appointment procedures. Posts of responsibility other than that of principal have been filled by seniority in secondary schools up until recently.

No guidelines have been issued to date concerning the conduct of interviews at second level other than those contained in the EEA Code. In relation to interviews the Code recommends that:

(a)Where possible, interview boards should not be comprised of persons of one sex only, and all persons who conduct or participate in interviews should always be carefully trained in the avoidance of discrimination.

(b)Where practicable, records of interviews should be kept showing clearly why applicants were or were not selected.

(c)Questions should refer to the requirements of the job. Care should be taken that questions relating to marriage plans, family planning intentions, children, etc., should not be asked where they could be construed as indicating bias. Where it is necessary to assess whether personal circumstances will affect performance of the job (e.g. where the job involves unsocial hours, extensive travel), relevant questions where they are deemed absolutely necessary, should be asked equally of male and female applicants, and the answers should be evaluated on the same basis for each.

(d)In all cases an interviewer should explain why a particular question is being asked if its relevance might not be immediately obvious.

The Liaison Committee on Gender Equality in Education, consisting of representatives of the three Teacher Unions, ICTU and the Department of Education, monitors appointment and selection procedures at primary and second level. It also considers many other aspects of gender equality; In and Pre-Service Teacher Education; subject provision, allocation and choice; sexism in textbooks; gender on the curriculum; career guidance; second chance education for women; health education.

10.3 THIRD LEVEL

The findings of the Report referred to at 9.2 above, Women Academics in Ireland, were as follows:⁽¹²⁶⁾

*Of the respondents who had applied for promotion within the previous five years, 95% of males and 94% of females reported that they had made a written application for the most recent position. Respondents were then asked whether all the information requested in the application was essential and adequate to determine their suitability for the post, and over 75% of respondents of both sexes agreed that it was.

*75.5% of males and 69% of females had been interviewed for the most recent promotional post for which they had applied. 98.5% of all candidates reported that they had been interviewed by a board which was all or predominantly male. 58.5% of males and 64.5% of females reported that this interview had resulted in an offer of appointment. (It should be noted that an interview is not required for all promotional posts, and that procedures differ from college to college).

*Respondents were then asked whether they felt that any of the questions asked at the interview had been unprofessional or irrelevant, and 27% of males and 34.5% of females answered “yes”. Again, inadequate academic input to the process was the most frequently mentioned criticism. “Discriminatory questions” were mentioned by no males and 5% of females. (It must be emphasised that numbers in the sample on which this percentage is based are very small).

*Satisfaction with the assessment procedures used in their college for promotional posts was expressed by just under half of both males and females. A wide variety of reasons was reported for dissatisfaction, the commonest being that the standards applied were arbitrary. Sex discrimination was mentioned by no males and 6% of females replying to this question.

*In reply to a question on what personal characteristics they felt influenced promotions in Irish academic life, marked divergences were found between the perceptions of male and female respondents. Only 24% of males as against 60% of females said that they believed promotions were influenced by a candidate’s sex. Of males, 1.5% believed that they had been personally affected by this factor in contrast to 18.5% of females. A further 23% of male respondents and 41.5% of females believed that it was a factor that influenced promotions in general. Similarly, a considerably higher proportion of females (34%) than of males (8.5%) believed that promotions were affected by a candidate’s marital status, and 8.5% of females (in contrast to 1.5% of males) believed themselves to have been personally affected by this’.

“It appears to the Committee that, while there is no evidence of overtly discriminatory rules and procedures, the imbalances between the sexes among academic staff are significant. Consequently, the issues of the generally low numbers of women in academic positions - especially at senior level - and their concentration in certain fields of study remain to be faced, as do the perceptions of discrimination evidenced by an admittedly small number of female respondents in the ESRI Survey”.

ANNEX

GENDER EQUALITY IN EDUCATION IN THE REPUBLIC OF IRELAND(1984-1992)

INTRODUCTION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

SUMMARY

EDUCATION POLICY

CURRICULUM

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN RELATION TO CURRICULUM

Education as Preparation for Life

Young People with Psychological Problems

Sex Education

Department of Education/European Community Action Research Project

Physical Education

TEACHER EDUCATION

GUIDANCE PROVISION

AMALGAMATION OF SCHOOLS

PUPIL/TEACHER RATIO

TRAINING COURSES

ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION

POSITION OF WOMEN TEACHERS

INTERVIEW BOARDS

CONCLUSIONS

(i) PROGRESS

Education Policy

Curriculum

Teacher Education

Training

Adult Education

Appointment of Teachers

Provision for the Disadvantaged

(ii) OUTSTANDING ISSUES

Education Policy

Curriculum

The effects of the cut-backs of the eighties

InService Provision

Training

Adult Education Provision

1. EDUCATION POLICY

1.1 CO-EDUCATION

1.1.1 Co-Education: The Present Position

1.1.2 The On-Going Debate About Co-Education

1.1.3 The Committee’s Recommendation

1.2 SEXISM IN SCHOOL TEXT BOOKS

1.3 NEW POLICY STATEMENT ON GENDER EQUALITY

1.4 REMARKS MADE BY THE SECRETARY TO THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (MAY 1990)

1.5 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION MEASURES AGAINST INEQUALITY/SEXISM

2. CURRICULUM

2.1 DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1984 IN RELATION TO THE CURRICULUM IN GENERAL

2.1.1. The Work of the Interim Curriculum and Examinations Board:

2.1.2. The National Council for Curriculum and Assessment

2.1.2.1. The Junior Certificate

Junior Certificate.

2.1.3 Primary Education

2.1.3.1 Primary Curriculum Review

2.1.3.2 Report of the Primary Education Review Body

2.1.4 The Pragmatic and Utilitarian Nature of our Present Schooling System

2.2 LEAVING CERTIFICATE SUBJECT PROVISION, ALLOCATION AND CHOICE

2.2.1. Leaving Certificate Subject Provision

2.2.2 Leaving Certificate Subject Allocation

2.2.3 Leaving Certificate Subject Choice in General

2.2.4 Subject Choice Within Mixed Schools

2.2.5 OECD Review

2.2.6 Aer Lingus Young Scientist Competition

2.2.7 Achievement

2.2.8 New Leaving Certificate Vocational Programme

2.2.9 Comparison With England And Wales and Northern Ireland

2.2.10 Junior Certificate Technology

2.2.11 Recent Economies and their Effect on Curriculum

2.2.12 Participation of Women in Third Level Education

2.3 EDUCATION AS PREPARATION FOR LIFE

2.4. HELPING YOUNG PEOPLE WITH PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

2.5 SEX EDUCATION

2.5.1 The Department’s Guidelines (1987)

2.5.2 Some Developments since 1984

2.5.3 Teenage Pregnancies

2.5.4 New Structures

2.5.5 An External Perspective

2.5.6 The Primary Curriculum Review/Junior Certificate

2.5.7 The Minister’s Position

2.5.8 Relevant findings of a Pilot Project At Primary Level

GENDER EQUALITY IN EDUCATION
IN THE REPUBLIC OF IRELAND
(1984-1992)

7.1. FEMALE APPRENTICES ⁽⁹³⁾